Position of the Soft Palate
This principle of consonant classification provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions. Oral vs. nasal
pit — pin seek — seen thieve — theme sick — sing 60
In these pairs the oral consonants It, k, v/ are opposed to the nasal /m, n, ту.
The method of minimal pairs helps to identify 24 consonant phonemes in the English language on the basis of such an analysis which demands a recourse to the meaning, or to the distinctive function of the phoneme. V. A. Vassilyey г writes that those linguists who reject meaning as external to linguistics think that it is possible to "group the sounds of the language into phonemes even without knowing the meaning of words" as D. Jones put it. V. A. Vassilyev states thai "this belief I. . .] is based on two laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution (1) that allophones of different phonemes always occur in the same phonetic context I. . .] and (2) that consequently, the allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context and always occur in different positions [. . .]." From these laws "two conclusions are deduced: (1) if more or less different speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context, they should be allophones of different phonemes; and (2) if more or less similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme [...]. This method is known in modern phonology as the purely distributional methodof identifying the phonemes of a language as items of its phonemic system."
Though the practical application of the purely distributional method is theoretically feasible, there are many difficulties in its use.
The principle which determines the choice of the most suitable method for teaching purposes is called the principle of pedagogical expedience in phonemic analysis.
Questions
1. What is the definition of the phoneme from the viewpoint of distinctive oppositions? 2. What is the difference between minimal and sub-minimal pairs? 3. What features of the phoneme are distinctively relevant and distinctively irrelevant? 4. What is the nature of voiced — voiceless opposition in English and in Russian? 5. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the existence of labial, lingual, and pharyngal consonant phonemes? 6. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory subdivisions within the group of labial and lingual consonants? 7. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the existence of occlusive (or stops), constructive, occlusiye-constrictive (or affricated) consonants? 8. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory subdivisions within the groups of occlusive and con-strictive consonants? 9. What distinctive oppositions prove the existence of oral and nasal consonant phonemes? 10. What is the difference between the semantic and purely distributional methods of phonological analysis?
Vassilyev V. A. Op. cit,—P. 160.
Exercises
*1. State what classificatory principles can be illustrated by the groups of pairs given below (consonants opposed initially).
pin — bin, pack — back, pie — bye, tie — die
pen — ten, been — dean
pole — coal, bait — gait
fee — we, fell — well
fee — he
sob — rob, seal — real, sole — role, sip ■— rip, sight — right
pity—city, pay — say, pail — sail, pole — sole, peel — seal
pine — mine, debt — net, kick — Nick
fell — well, those — rose, soul — role, sip — rip, sight — right
fell — well, fee — we
fail — sail, fee — see, foot — soot, fat — sat, fell — sell
2/ Read the pairs of words. Pay attention to the presence of aspiration in /p, " t, k/ vs. its absence in /b, d, g/ rather than to voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis distinction.
| corn —gone cave —gave |
| It—d/ /k—g/ ten —den come —gum town — down coast —ghost ton —done came —game ties —dies could—good takes—days cot —got curls —girls |
/p—b/
pet —bet
pig —big
puts —boots
pass —bus
pack—back
port—bought tear —dear
tart —dart
torse —doors
*3. What minimal distinctive feature (or features) makes these oppositions ;phonologically relevant?
(a) cap —cab sent —send
pack —back ton —don caper —labour latter—ladder
leak —league coal —goal decree—degree
(b) pee —fee tie —sigh do —zoo
supper—suffer attend—ascend raider—razor
leap —leak park —part rude —ruse
(c) till —chill day —jay share —chair
martyr—marcher murder—merger much —marsh
eat —each lard —large furnisher—furniture
(d) thigh—shy Ruth —ruche root —rouge
save —shave presser—pressure mass—mash
ruse —rouge
(e) bad —mad dock—knock rigging—ringing
arbour—armour eddy—any log -long
rub —rum bad —ban
*4. Read these pairs of words. State which of them represent minimal pairs
and which sub-minimal pairs.
thick —sick zest —lest daily —daisy
bathed —base they —lay Weiler—weather
mouth —mouse marry—measure eel —ease
thigh —shy genre —jar bathe —bail
leasure —ledger
Control Tasks
*1. Sort out the oppositions under the following headings: (a) labial vs. fore-lingual, (b) labial vs. mediolingual, (c) labial vs. backlinguai.
pat —cat wield—yield man —nap
supper—succour wail —Yale coming—cunning
leap —leak seem —seen
*2. State which of the pairs illustrate (a) forelingual vs. mediolingual and (b) forelingual vs. backlingual oppositions.
tame —carae sinner—singer sung—young
less —yes bitter—bicker bat —back
rudder—rugger clue —cue day —gay
drew —due bad —bag rung—young
*3. Sort out the oppositions under the following headings: (a) occlusive vs. constrictfve, (b) constrictive vs. occlusive-constrictive, (c) noise vs. so-norants, (d) unicentral vs. bicentral, <e) flat narrowing vs. round narrowing.
pine —fine work —jerk vain —lane
fare —chair bee —thee came—lame
boat—moat deed—need fame—same
seek —seen thine—wine sick —sing
kick —king
4. State allophonic differences of the /t, k/ phonemes in the initial position due to the influence of the next vowel.
\ W tea, tip, ten, tan, tar, top, tore, tub, took, two, term, tobacco, tale, tie, town, tow, tear, tore
/k/ key, kin, kept, cap, car, cot, core, cut, cork, cool, curb, contain, cake, kite, cow, coy, coal, care
*5. State allophonic differences of:
Л, r, j/ after /p/ in: plan, price, pure;
/r, j, w/ after /t/ in: try, tube, twelve;
/I, r, j, w/ after /k/ in: clean, cream, cue, quite
ENGLISH VOWELS AS UNITS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Classificatory principles suggested by Soviet phoneticians can be illustrated by distinctive oppositions in the system of the following English vowel phonemes: /i:, i, e, se, a-, d, o:, u, u:, л, а:, зЛ
1. Position of the Lips
Rounded vs. unrounded vowels:
don — darn pot — part
In these pairs the unrounded vowel phoneme hi is opposed to the rounded hi phoneme.
2. Position of the Tongue
(1) Horizontal movement of the tongue (a) front vs. central
cab—curb bed—bird
%honeme^r (b) back vs. central
pull—perl cart—curt call—curl
(2) Vertical movement of 'the tongue
(a) close (Ugh) vs. mid-open (mid)
bid—bird put—port week—work
Jomvo^i%t dose vowels llt u'lu/ are opposed t0 the
(b) open (low) vs. mid-open (mid)
lack—lurk bard—bird call—curl
Xenvowei/3:/
to the h0lte?i Wilhin efch grouP which we stogle out according
subgroups 3nd Vertical move^nts of the tongue there are
/i" РеГ0^/1Т!,8,паГ%3иЬ(!1у1аес1ШЬ1и][1У!го^ and front-retracted:
Its' indSendent „hy 7nt-' {1;.аз а fr°nt-retracted vowel phoneme.
of ÄfpaUheng!°S1CalstatuSCan be proved ЬУ the 6XistenCe
Pete-pit deep-dip beet-bit
and^ck-SrlLf / als? Evicted into fully back /u:, o:, W back-adväncS 2 ^' a/' The ^dependent phonological status о pairs, e™ V°Wels can be P^ved by the existence of minimal
bard—bud cart—cut pool—pull
els С1?ГтЫ^}1т1-й~<°т <or mid> as well as open (or low) yow-are subdivided into vowels of narrow and broad variation. 64
Thus, within the group of high vowels /1:, u:/ belong to the vowel phonemes of narrow variation, and /i, u/ belong to the vowel phonemes of broad variation. Their independent phonological status can be proved by the existence of such pairs as:
Pete—pit pool—pull
In these pairs /i:, u:/ are opposed to /i, u/, which belong to the subgroup of high vowels of broad variation.
Within the group of mid-open (or mid) vowels /e, з:/ belong to the phonemes of narrow variation and /a/ belongs to the subgroup of mid vowels of broad variation. The independent phonological status of /e, з:, э/ can be proved by the existence of such pairs as:
pence—sixpence foreword—forward
/'pens/—/'sikspans/ /ifo:w3:d/—/if
Open (or low) vowels are also subdivided into the phonemes of broad variation (/se, a/) and of narrow variation \ht). Their independent phonological status can be proved by the existence of minimal pairs:
bad—bard knot—gnat
3. Degree of Tenseness and the Character of the End of the Vowel
This principle of vowel classification together with the principle of length provide the basis for the following distinctive oppositions:
Tense vs. lax Checked vs. free
eel — ill steel—-still done—darn knit—need
peel —pill seat —sit fun —farm cut -—card
deed—did feet —fit come—calm fit —feed
4. Length
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There are long vowel phonemes in English /i:, а, о:, и:, э:/ and short /i, e, ae,1 л, и, и, э/. But the length of the vowels is .not the only distinctive feature of minimal pairs like: Pete—pit, beet—bit, Bart—bad, etc. In other words, the difference between /i:—i,
■а—л/, etc. is not only quantitative-------- 1
but also qualitative, which is condi-______ [
tioned by different positions of the bulk
■of the tongue. E.g. in the words bead—bid
not only the length of the vowels /i:, i/
js different but in the /i:/ articulation
the bulk of the tongue occupies a more front and high position,
than in the articulation of A/.
Qualitative difference is the main relevant feature that serves to differentiate long and short vowel phonemes because quantitative
Some authors consider /a/ to be a long phoneme.
3—182
Gt;
characteristics of long vowels depend on the position they occupy in a word:1
(a) they are the longest in the terminal position: bee, bar, coo, her,
law, car,
(b) they are shorter before voiced consonants: bead, bard, cool, term,
lard, card',
(c) they are the shortest before voiceless consonants: beet, Bart,
hoot, Turk, loose, cart.
To observe the quantity, or length of vowels in different positions, it is advisable to do contrast exercises, e.g.
bee — bead — beet bar — Bard — Bart car — card — cart
5. Stability of Articulation
The principle provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions:
(1) Monophthongs vs. diphthongs
bit—bait bid—beard dead—dared cot—coat
In these pairs the monophthongs /i, e, o/ are opposed to the diphthongs /ei, ia, еэ, эй/.
kit—kite debt—doubt John—join
In these pairs the monophthongs /i, e, o/ are opposed to the diphthongs /ai, au, 01/.
(2) Diphthongs vs. stable vowels
bite—bee bait —beet boat—boot pail—pool lake—leek beard—bead raid—rude care—coo
In these pairs the diphthongs /ai, ei, ю, эй, вэ/ are opposed to the jr., u:/.
According to the movement of the tongue within the articulation of the diphthong from the nucleus to the glide, diphthongs are subdivided into closing and centring.
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The method of minimal pairs helps to establish 20 vowel phonemes in the phonological system of English vowels:
12 monophthongs: /i, e, se, a, v, o:, u, л, з:, э, i:, u:/> 8 diphthongs: /ei, ai, oi, 1Э, вэ, иэ, аи, эй/.
* There are other factors, that condition the quantitative difference of vowel phonemes (see p. 39).
Questions
1. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory groups of rounded and unrounded vowels? 2. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory groups according to the (a) horizontal, (b) vertical movements of the tongue? 3. Can the existence of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels be proved by minimal pairs? 4. Is the length of the vowels the only distinctive feature of long (tense) and short (lax) vowel phonemes like /i:, i/, /u:, u/, etc.? 5. How is vowel length conditioned positionally? 6. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the classificatory principle of vowel stability in articulation? 7. How are diphthongs subdivided according to the tongue movement from the nucleus to the glide?
Exercises
*1. Read these pairs of words. State what principles of vowel classification they illustrate.
(a) cod —cord (b) end —and (c) fir —for
not —nought ten —tan firm —form
cot —caught hem —ham turn—torn
body—border kettle—cattle bird —bord
(d) fool —full (e) am —aim (f) nor —no
pool —pull add —aid law —low
food —put man—main called —cold
tool —took lad —laid bald —bold
boot—book fat —fate caught—coat
2. Read these words and state what movements of the tongue make the vowel phonemes /e, з:, л, a:, u, i, эе, ж/ different,
bed—bird—bud—bard bid—bird—bud
lack—lurk—luck—lark lid—led—lad
hat—hurt—hut—heart big—beg—bag
cab—curb—cub kit—curt—caught
tan—turn—ton
*3. Read these pairs of words. State:
(a) what closing diphthongs are opposed in the pairs:
hay—high laid—lied no—now known—noun bay—buy tape—type hoe—how phoned—found
(b) what centring diphthongs are opposed in the pairs:
here—hair ear —air rear—rare fear —fair beer—bear tear—tare
*4. Read these words. Observe the allophonic difference of the /i:, ei, ж, з:/ phonemes conditioned by their positional length.
bee—been—beet lay—laid—late
dee—dean—deep may—maid—mate
O* 67
knee—need—neat say—save—safe
see—seed—seat sign — side—sight
lee—league—leak tie—tide—tight
core—cord—caught her—heard—hurl
saw—sword—sought sir—serve—serf
four—form—fork fur—furl—first
bore—board—bought were—girl—purse