GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
A GRAMMAR
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
В. Л. КАУШАНСКАЯ, Р. Л. КОВНЕР, О. Н. КОЖЕВНИКОВА,
Е. В. ПРОКОФЬЕВА, 3. М. РАЙНЕС, С. Е. СКВИРСКАЯ,
Ф. Я. ЦЫРЛИНА
ГРАММАТИКА
АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА
ПОСОБИЕ ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ ИНСТИТУТОВ
Под редакцией проф. Б. А. Ильиша
Второе издание, переработанное
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ УЧЕБНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЕ ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО
МИНИСТЕРСТВА ПРОСВЕЩЕНИЯ РСФСР
ЛЕНИНГРАДСКОЕ ОТДЕЛЕНИЕ
Ленинград 1963
FOREWORD
The object of this book is to give a course of English grammar for students specializing in the English language.
The book includes Accidence, i. e. the parts of speech and morphological categories, and Syntax, i. e. the sentence and the parts of the sentence. The rules are illustrated by examples taken from English and American authors of the 19th and 20th centuries.
The material of the book has been used for many years in teaching students of the Pedagogical institute of Foreign Languages in Leningrad, and has thus been put to the test of practical work, in preparing the material for print the authors have cosiderably enlarged it.
Exercises on all topics treated in the manual are published in a separate issue, arranged in accordance with the chapters of the present book.
The authors wish to acknowledge their obligations to the teachers of the Department of Foreign Languages and the Philological Department of Leningrad University, as well as to the teachers of the Hertzen Pedagogical Institute and all the strangers, who have reviewed the book and made a number of valuable suggestions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction. Grammatical structure of the English language
Part I. ACCIDENCE
General classification of the parts of speech
Chapter I. THE NOUN
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Morphological characteristics
§ 3. Syntactical characteristics
§ 4. Morphological composition
§ 5. Classification
§ 6. The category of number
§ 7. The category of case
Chapter II. THE ARTICLE
§ 1. General notion
Use of articles with common nouns
§ 2–4. Class nouns
§ 5–7. Nouns of material
§ 8–11. Abstract nouns
Use of articles with proper nouns
§ 12. Names of persons
§ 13. Geographical names
§ 14. Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines
§ 15. Names of cardinal points
§ 16. Names of months and days
§ 17. Nouns modified by proper nouns
Use of articles with nouns in some set expressions
§ 18. The use of the indefinite article with nouns in set expressions
§ 19. The use of the definite article with nouns in set expressions
§ 20. Nouns in set expressions used without an article
§ 21. The use of articles with predicative nouns
§ 22. The use of articles with nouns in apposition
§ 23. The use of articles with nouns used in address
§ 24. Place of the article
§ 25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian
Special difficulties in the use of articles
§ 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening
§ 27. The use of articles with names of seasons
§ 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail
§ 29. The use of articles with the noun town
§ 30. The use of articles with the names of meals
§ 31. The use of articles with names of languages
Use of articles with nouns modified by certain adjectives, pronouns and numerals
§ 32. Most
§ 33. Few, a few, the few; little, a little, the little
§ 34. Two, the two; three, the three, etc.
§ 35. The second, a second
§ 36. Another, the other
§ 37. Last, the last
§ 38. Next, the next
§ 39. A number, the number
Omission of the article
Chapter III. THE ADJECTIVE
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Morphological characteristics
§ 3. Spelling rules
§ 4. Syntactical characteristics
§ 5. Morphological composition
§ 6. Classification
§ 7. Grammatical characteristics of qualitative adjectives
§ 8. Grammatical characteristics of relative adjectives
§ 9. Substantivized adjectives
Chapter IV. THE PRONOUN
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Classification
§ 3. Personal pronouns
§ 4. Possessive pronouns
§ 5. Reflexive pronouns
§ 6. Reciprocal pronouns
§ 7. Demonstrative pronouns
§ 8. Interrogative pronouns
§ 9. Relative pronouns
§ 10. Conjunctive pronouns
§ 11. Defining pronouns
§ 12. Indefinite pronouns
§ 13. Negative pronouns
Chapter V. THE NUMERAL
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Cardinal numerals
§ 3. The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence
§ 4. Ordinal numerals
§ 5. The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence
Chapter VI. THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE
§ 1. Definition
§ 2–4. Morphological composition and use
Chapter VII. THE VERB
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Morphological structure
§ 3. Basic forms
§ 4. Syntactic function
§ 5. Transitive and intransitive verbs
§ 6. Lexical character
§ 7–10. Grammatical categories
Tenses in the Active Voice
The Indefinite form
The Present Indefinite
§ 1. The formation of the Present Indefinite
§ 2. The use of the Present Indefinite
The Past Indefinite
§ 3. The formation of the Past Indefinite
§ 4. The use of the Past Indefinite
The Future Indefinite
§ 5. The formation of the Future Indefinite
§ 6. The use of the Future Indefinite
The Future Indefinite in the Past
§ 7. The formation of the Future Indefinite in the Past
§ 8. The use of the Future Indefinite in the Past
The Continuous form
The Present Continuous
§ 9. The formation of the Present Continuous
§ 10. The use of the Present Continuous
The Past Continuous
§ 11. The formation of the Past Continuous
§ 12. The use of the Past Continuous
The Future Continuous
§ 13. The formation of the Future Continuous
§ 14. The use of the Future Continuous
The Future Continuous in the Past
§ 15. The formation of the Future Continuous in the Past
§ 16. The use of the Future Continuous in the Past
Verbs not used in the Continuous form
The Perfect form
The Present Perfect
§ 17. The formation of the Present Perfect
§ 18. The use of the Present Perfect
§ 19. The Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect
The Past Perfect
§ 20. The formation of the Past Perfect
§ 21. The use of the Past Perfect
§ 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect
The Future Perfect
§ 23. The formation of the Future Perfect
§ 24. The use of the Future Perfect
The Future Perfect in the Past
§ 25. The formation of the Future Perfect in the Past
§ 26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past
The Perfect Continuous form
The Present Perfect Continuous
§ 27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous
§ 28. The use of the Present Perfect Continuous
§29.The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous
§ 30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive
The Past Perfect Continuous
§ 31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous
§ 32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous
§ 33. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous
The Future Perfect Continuous
§ 34. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous
§ 35. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous
The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
§ 36. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
§ 37. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
The Passive Voice
§ 1. The formation of the Passive Voice
§ 2. The use of the Passive Voice
§ 3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice
§ 4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian
§ 5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language
§ 6. The verb to be + Participle II
Modal Verbs
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Can
§ 3. May
§ 4. Must
§ 5. Should and ought
§ 6. To be+ Infinitive
§ 7. To have + Infinitive
§ 8. Shall
§ 9. Will
§ 10. Would
§ 11. Dare
§ 12. Need
Mood
The Indicative Mood
The Imperative Mood
The Subjunctive Mood
§ 1. General notion
§ 2. Synthetic forms
§ 3. Analytical forms
§ 4. The forms of the Indicative Mood used to express the same meaning as is expressed by the Subjunctive Mood
The use of the Subjunctive Mood
§ 5. Simple sentences
§ 6. Conditional sentences
§ 7. Adverbial clauses of purpose
§ 8. Adverbial clauses of concession
§ 9. Adverbial clauses of time and place
§ 10. Adverbial clauses of comparison
§ 11. Predicative clauses
§ 12. Subject clauses
§ 13. Object clauses
§ 14. Attributive appositive clauses
§ 15. Attributive clauses modifying the noun time in the principal clause
§ 16. Emotional use of the Subjunctive Mood
§ 17. Ways of rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Russian
Chapter VIII. THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals
The Participle
§ 3. General notion
§ 4. Double nature of the participle
§ 5. Tense distinctions
§ 6. Voice distinctions
§ 7. Functions of Participle I
§ 8. Functions of Participle II
§ 9. Predicative constructions with the participle
§ 10. The Objective Participial Construction
§ 11. The Subjective Participial Construction
§ 12. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction
§ 13. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction
§ 14. Absolute constructions without a participle
§ 15. Punctuation
The Gerund
§ 16. General notion
§ 17. Double nature of the gerund
§ 18. Tense distinctions
§ 19. Voice distinctions
§ 20. Predicative constructions with the gerund
§ 21. The use of the gerund
§ 22. The gerund and the infinitive
§ 23. The functions of the gerund
§ 24. The gerund and the participle
§ 25. The gerund and the verbal noun
The Infinitive
§ 26. General notion
§ 27. Tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive
§ 28. Voice distinctions
§ 29. The use of the infinitive without the particle to
§ 30. The functions of the infinitive
§ 31. Infinitive constructions
§ 32. The Objective-with-the Infinitive Construction
§ 33. The Subjective Infinitive Construction
§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction
§ 35. The Infinitive with the expressions to be sorry, to be glad
Chapter IX. THE ADVERB
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Morphological structure
§ 3. Degrees of comparison
§ 4. Classification
Chapter X. THE MODAL WORDS
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Classification
§ 3. Use
§ 4. Modal words and adverbs
Chapter XI. THE INTERJECTION
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Classification
§ 3. Morphological composition
Chapter XII. THE PREPOSITION
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Morphological structure
§ 3. Classification
§ 4. Prepositions, adverbs and conjunctions
§ 5. Prepositions and postpositions
Chapter XIII. THE CONJUNCTION
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Morphological structure
§ 3. Classification
§ 4. Coordinating conjunctions
§ 5. Subordinating conjunctions
Chapter XIV. THE PARTICLE
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Classification
Part II. SYNTAX
Chapter XV. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
§ 1. Definition
§ 2. Classification
§ 3–4. Structure
Parts of the sentence
The principal parts of the sentence
The subject
§ 5. Definition
§ 6. Ways of expressing the subject
§ 7. It as the subject of the sentence
The predicate
§ 8. Definition
§ 9. The simple predicate
§ 10. The predicate expressed by a phraseological unit
§ 11. The compound predicate
§ 12. The compound nominal predicate
§ 13. The predicative
§ 14. The Objective Predicative
§ 15. The compound verbal predicate
§ 16. The compound verbal modal predicate
§ 17. The compound verbal aspect predicate
§ 18. Mixed types of predicate
Agreement of the predicate with the subject
§ 19. General notion
§ 20. Rules of agreement
§ 21. Agreement of the predicate with the subject expressed by a syntactic word-group
The secondary parts of the sentence
The object
§ 22. Definition
§ 23. Ways of expressing the object
§ 24. Kinds of objects
§ 25. The direct object
§ 26. The indirect object
§ 27. The complex object
§ 28. The cognate object
The attribute
§ 29. Definition
§ 30. Ways of expressing the attribute
§ 31. The apposition
§ 32. The close apposition
§ 33. The loose or detached apposition
The adverbial modifier
§ 34. Definition and classification
§ 35. Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier
Detached (loose) parts of the sentence
§ 36. Definition
§ 37. The detached adverbial modifier
§ 38. The detached attribute
§ 39. The detached object
The independent elements of the sentence
§ 40. Definition
§ 41. Parenthesis
Sentences with homogeneous parts
Chapter XVI. WORD ORDER
§ 1. General remarks
§ 2–4. Inverted order of words
§ 5. Position of the object
§ 6. Position of the attribute
§ 7. Position of adverbial modifiers
Chapter XVII. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The compound sentence
§ 1. General notion
§ 2. Types of coordination
The complex sentence
§ 3. General notion
§ 4. Subject clauses
§ 5. Predicative clauses
§ 6. Object clauses
§ 7. Attributive clauses
§ 8. Attributive relative clauses
§ 9. Attributive appositive clauses
§ 10. The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses
§ 11. Adverbial clauses
§ 12. Adverbial clauses of time
§ 13. Adverbial clauses of place
§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause
§ 15. Adverbial clauses of purpose
§ 16. Adverbial clauses of condition
§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession
§ 18. Adverbial clauses of result
§ 19. Adverbial clauses of manner
§ 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison
§ 21. Polysemantic conjunctions
The compound-complex sentence
Parenthetical clauses
Chapter XVIII. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
§ 1. Definition
§ 2–5. General rules
§ 6. Tenses in English and in Russian
§ 7. Tenses in object clauses
§ 8. Tenses in conventional direct speech
§ 9. Tenses in attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession
§ 10. Tenses in subject clauses and predicative clauses
Chapter XIX. INDIRECT SPEECH
§ 1–2. General remarks
§ 3. Indirect statements
§ 4. Indirect questions
§ 5. Indirect orders and requests
§ 6. Indirect offers, suggestions, and advice
§ 7. Indirect exclamations
§ 8. Greetings and leave-taking
Chapter XX. PUNCTUATION
§ 1. General remarks
The simple sentence
§ 2. Homogeneous members
§ 3. Detached members
§ 4. Parenthetical words, groups of words, and clauses
§ 5. Interjections
§ 6. Nouns in address
The compound sentence
§ 7. Coordinate clauses joined asyndetically
§ 8. Coordinate clauses joined by copulative conjunctions
§ 9. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive conjunctions
§ 10. Coordinate clauses joined by adversative conjunctions
§ 11. Clauses joined by causative-consecutive conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs
§ 12. Sentences containing direct speech
The complex sentence
§ 13. Subject clauses
§ 14. Predicative clauses
§ 15. Object clauses
§ 16. Attributive clauses
§ 17. Adverbial clauses
§ 18. Complex sentences consisting of two or more homogeneous clauses
§ 19. Declarative non-exclamatory sentences
§ 20. Sentences expressing a question
§ 21. Exclamatory sentences
§ 22. Unfinished sentences
INTRODUCTION
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
§ 1. Languages may be synthetic and analytical according to their grammatical structure.
In synthetic languages, such as for instance Russian, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of inflections: e. g. крыша дома.
In analytical languages, such as English, the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of form words and word order: e. g. the roof of the house.
§ 2. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical verb-form consists of one or more form words, which have no lexical meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e. g. He has come, I am reading.
The analytical forms are:
1. Tense and Aspect verb-forms (the Continuous form: I am writing, the Perfect form: I have written, the Perfect Continuous form: I have been writing, the Future Indefinite: I shall write, all the other forms of the Future; also the interrogative and the negative forms of the Present and Past Indefinite: Does he sing? He does not sing).
2. The Passive Voice: I was invited to the theatre.
3. The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: I should go there if I had time.
In all these analytical forms the form word is an auxiliary verb.
(For detailed treatment see chapters on the verb.)
§ 3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in the English language there are:
1. Endings:
-s in the third person singular in the Present Indefinite: speaks;
-s in the plural of nouns: tables;
-s in the genitive case: my brother’s book;
-ed in the Past Indefinite of regular verbs: smoked.
2. Inner flexions: man — men; speak — spoke.
3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: were, be, have, etc.
§ 4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.
A deviation from the ‑general principle of word order is possible only in special cases.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVI, Word Order.)
§ 5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A word substitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.
One replaces class nouns in the singular and in the plural:
Thanks for the compliment, if it is one.
The hours he spent with Ruth were the only happy ones he had, and they
were not all happy. (London)
That generally substitutes nouns, especially abstract nouns and nouns of material followed by an attribute, mostly introduced by the preposition of:
He (Martin) watched the easy walk of the other in front of him, and for
the first time realized that his walk was different from thatof other men.
(London)
Almost every day thereafter Mrs. Skelton would go for a ride in her own
car or thatof Castleman. (Dreiser)
Do substitutes verbs:
You know your law better than I do. (Galsworthy)
Forgive me for speaking with brutal frankness, I only do so because I
care. (Alexander)
Part I
ACCIDENCE