The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
The for-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition for.
In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used.
The construction can have different functions in the sentence.1It can be:
1 All the observations concerning the infinitive as subject, object, attribute and adverbial modifier of result hold good when these parts of the sentence are expressed by the for-to-Infinitive Construction.
1. Subject (often with the introductory it).
For me to ask would be treason, and for me to be told would be treason.
(Wilson)
Если бы я спросила, это было бы предательством; если бы мне сказали,
это было бы предательством.
I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so much money this
way. (Dreiser)
Я часто думаю, что стыдно людям тратить на это так много денег.
2. Predicative.
That was for him to find out.(Eliot)
Выяснить это должен был он.
3. Complex object.
He waited for her to speak.(Hardy)
Он ждал, когда она заговорит.
Не asked for the papers to be brought.
Он попросил принести бумаги.
I am very anxious for Mr. Headstone to succeed in allhe undertakes.
(Dickens)
Мне очень хочется, чтобы мистеру Хедстону удавалось все, за что он
берется.
Erik saw that she was impatient for him to be gone.(Wilson)
Эрик видел, что она с нетерпением ожидает, когда он уйдет.
I hope you won’t think it very odd for a perfect stranger to talk to you like
this.(Maugham)
Я надеюсь, вы не сочтете странным, что совершенно незнакомый вам
человек разговаривает с вами таким образом.
4. Attribute.
The best thing for you to dois to bide here with your load.
I’ll send somebody to help you. (Hardy)
Самое лучшее, что вы можете сделать, — это подождать здесь с вашей
поклажей. Я пришлю кого-нибудь помочь вам.
There was really nothing for him to dobut what he had done. (Dreiser)
Ему действительно ничего не оставалось делать, кроме того, что он
сделал (единственное, что ему оставалось сделать, было то, что он
сделал).
There’s nobody here for him to play with.(Hemingway)
Здесь нет никого, с кем он мог бы поиграть.
Не had even had a comfortable house for her(his niece) to live in. (Trоllоре)
У него даже был удобный дом, где она могла бы жить.
5. Adverbial modifier:
(a) ofpurpose.
Here’s the thermometer: they’ve left it for the doctor to seeinstead of
shaking it down. (Shaw)
Вот термометр; его не стряхнули, чтобы доктор мог посмотреть
температуру.
Не stepped aside for me to pass. (Du Maurier)
Он отошел, в сторону, чтобы я могла пройти.
(b) of result.
The pleasure of accompanying you was too great a temptation for me to
resist.(Collins)
Удовольствие сопровождать вас было так велико, что я не мог ему
противиться.
But he had consented, and it was too late for him now to recede. (Trollope)
Но он уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать.
Не spoke loud enough for you to hear.
Он говорил достаточно громко, чтобы вы могли его слышать.
His experience of women was great enough for him to be awarethat the
negative often meant nothing more than the preface to the affirmative.
(Hardy)
Он достаточно хорошо знал женщин, чтобы понимать, что отказ бывает
часто лишь преддверием к согласию.
§ 35. With the expressions to be sorry, to be glad the infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive.
I am glad (pleased) to have gota ticket for the concert.
I am glad to have seen you.(Dreiser)
I am very sorry to have donea man wrong, particularly when it can’t be
undone. (Dickens)
In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to be sorry.
I am glad you got a ticket for the concert.
“I am glad you think so,” returned Doyce, with his grey eye looking kind and
bright. (Dickens)
Chapter IX
THE ADVERB
§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: “He amuses
Winifred.” (Galsworthy)
And glancing sidelong at his nephew he thought... (Galsworthy)
For a second they stood with hands hard clasped. (Galsworthy)
And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were so wide awake.
(Dickens)
The man must have had diabolically acute hearing. (Wells)
Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it. (Jerome)
§ 2.As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is ‑ly. There are also some other suffixes: ‑wards, ‑ward; ‑long, ‑wise.)
(3) compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding ‑er and the superlative by adding -est.
fast — faster — fastest
hard — harder — hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in ‑ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.
wisely — more wisely — most wisely
beautifully — more beautifully — most beautifully
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well — better — best
badly — worse — worst
much — more — most
little — less — least
§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);
(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);
(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.);
(4) adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.);
(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);
(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.1
Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions2 and words of the category of state.3
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
2 See Chapter XII, The Preposition.
3 See Chapter VI, The Words of the Category of State.
Chapter X
THE MODAL WORDS
§ 1.The modal wordsexpress the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability, of the action he speaks about.
§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
(1) words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly, etc.);
(2) words expressing supposition(perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc.);
(3) words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily; luckily — unluckily; fortunately — unfortunately).
§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.1Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.2
1 See Chapter XV, The Simple Sentence.
2 Modal words used as sentence-words are similar to the words yes and no expressing affirmation and negation, which are also sentence-words.
Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wilson)
“Will you allow me to detain you one moment,” said he. “Certainly,”replied
the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)
§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and adverbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.
Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English.
Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.
If he were not married as happilyas he was, might notsomething come of it?
(Dreiser) (ADVERB)
...she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but happilybrief
scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel... (Ch.
Bronte) (MODAL WORD)
Lamlein rose. “We have fulfilled our obligations,” he said pompously, and yet
not quite certainly.(Heym) (ADVERB)
Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy)
(MODAL WORD)
Slowly, surely, with the secret inner process that works the destruction of an
old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had
corroded the comely edifice of his philosophy. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
Over the ridge she would find him. Surelyshe would find him over the ridge.
(Wells) (MODAL WORD)
Chapter XI
THE INTERJECTION
§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.
§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are: ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.
...A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted,
“Americans! Hurrah!”(Heym) (joy)
Alas!The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window “To let”.
(Dickens) (sorrow)
Psha!There’s no possibility of being witty without a little, ill nature.
(Sheridan) (contempt)
Oh,bother! I can’t see anyone now. Who is it? (Shaw) (indignation)
“Dear me!” says Mr. Chillip meekly smiling with something shining in his
eyes. (Dickens) (surprise)
2. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the hearer. They are: here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.
Here! I’ve had enough of this. I’m going. (Shaw) (protest)
“Upon my word I was not awake, sir,” replied Oliver earnestly. “I was not, indeed, sir.” “Tush,tush,my dear!” said the Jew abruptly resuming his old manner. (Dickens) (order)
§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
1. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are simple words: ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, bravo, hush. Only a few primary interjections are composite: heigh-ho! hey-ho! holla-ho! gee-ho!
2. Secondary interjections are derived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous with the words they are derived from. They are: well, now, here, there, come, why, etc.
(Derivative interjections should not be confused with exclamation-words, such as nonsense, shame, good, etc.)
Derivative interjections may be simple: well, here, there, come, etc., and composite: dear me, confound it, hang it, etc.
Interjections are used as independent sentence-words or independent elements of the sentence.1
1 See Chapter XV, § 42.
T h e D a u g h t e r: Sixpence thrown away! Really mamma, you might have
spared Freddy that.
T h e G e n t l e m a n: Phew! (Shaw)
Well, I don’t like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is so fond of
taking. (Voynich)
N о t e. — Formulas of courtesy, greetings, etc. should not be regarded as
interjections. Thus, good-bye, thank you are not interjections because they do
not express emotion or will.
Chapter ХП
THE PREPOSITION
§ 1.The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.
Usually the preposition is not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.
Desert moved quickly to the windows. (Galsworthy)
Sometimes, however, a preposition may be separated from the word it refers to and placed at the end of the sentence or clause. In that case it is stressed.
But he sounds as though he knows what he’s talking about. (Wilson)
The preposition may be weakly stressed before a pronoun.
She wrote the words to them herself, and other poems. (Galsworthy)
The preposition is stressed when its meaning is emphasized.
The book was in the table, not on it.
§ 2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
(1) simple (in, on, at, for, with, etc.);
(2) derivative(behind, below, across, along, etc.);
(3) compound(inside, outside, within, without, etc.);
(4) composite(because of, in front of, in accordance with, etc.).
§ 3. According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into prepositions of place and direction (in, on, below, under, between, etc.), time(after, before, at, etc.), prepositions expressing abstract relations (отвлеченные отношения) (by, with, because of, with a view to, etc.).
The lexical meaning of some prepositions is quite concrete (e. g. in, below, between, before, after, till, etc.), while that of some other prepositions may be weakened to a great extent (e. g. to, by, of).
For instance, the preposition to generally indicates direction or movement towards something:
Every night Sissy went to Rachel’s lodging, and sat with her in her small neat
room. (Dickens)
But in some cases the lexical meaning of the preposition to is weakened.
...all the house belongs to me, or will do in a few years. (Ch. Bronte)
Some prepositions are polysemantic and may express different relations; e. g. for:
Never once had Erik sensed the struggle for life. (Wilson) (purpose.)
Even when their eyes had met and her sister had approached the bed, Louisa
lay for minutes looking at her in silence... (Dickens) (time)
She could scarcely move her head for pain and heaviness, her eyes were
strained and sore, and she was very weak. (Dickens) (cause)
§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
For instance, the prepositions after and before are homonymous with the adverbs after and before and with the conjunctions after and before.
There is an old saying that if a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had
better not fall in love after. (Shaw) (ADVERB)
When he got back to Ann Arbor, he found Savina in a state of excitement
because Trasker had heard from Regan after Erik had left. (Wilson)
(CONJUNCTION)
“Where do you intend to stay tonight?” she asked after a moment. (Wilson)
(PREPOSITION)
The colour rushed into Bosinney’s face, but soon receded, leaving it sallow-
brown as before. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
He did not write to her, and it was almost a year before he began to see her
again. (Wilson) (CONJUNCTION)
This letter seemed to afford her peculiar satisfaction; she read it through twice
before replying to the landlady. (Mansfield) (PREPOSITION)
Though identical inform, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are different parts of speech. The adverb, unlike the preposition and conjunction, serves as part of the sentence, e. g. after is an adverbial modifier of time, etc.
§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.1
1 See Chapter VII, § 2.
A preposition as well as a postposition does not perform any independent function in the sentence. But while a preposition denotes the relation between objects and phenomena, a postposition is part of a composite verb.
A preposition is not usually stressed, while a postposition usually bears the stress.
We’ve got to live on what we earn. (Cronin) (PREPOSITION)
He liked Erik more than any of the assistants the department had taken on in a
long time, as much as he could like, one of the younger men. (Wilson)
(POSTPOSITION)
Chapter XIII
THE CONJUNCTION
§ 1.The conjunctionis a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.
Sadie brought them in andwent back to the door. (Mansfield)
...the blinds were down in the dining-room andthe lights turned on — and all
the lights were red-roses. (Mansfield)
The other day I was saying to Fabermacher that Haviland isn’t really cruel,
he’s just thoughtless. AndFabermacher said that was the cruellest thing about
the human race. Andhe’s right. (Wilson)
§ 2. According to their morphological structureconjunctions are divided into the following groups:
(1) simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.).
Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with prepositions, adverbs, and pronouns.
(2) derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.).
(3) compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). These conjunctions are few.
(4) composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.).
Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both... and, either... or, not only... but (also), neither... nor, whether... or.
If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would
have seemed to him bothridiculous andsentimental. (Galsworthy)
...nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of
vision or conception. (Ch. Bronte)
Her son had not onlycome home, buthe had come home a good person.
(Abrahams)
Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was neither
smallness normeanness. (London)
He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, but whetherhe
had been beaten by the storm for two days or two weeks he did not know.
(London)
§ 3.As to their functionconjunctions fall under two classes:
(1) coordinating conjunctions;
(2) subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).
(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, buthe simply couldn’t any
more; andcrossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond.
(Galsworthy)
(b) He opened his eyes andstared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson)
(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures
believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right andthat other
human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they.
(London)
(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Havi-land
apologized for his mistake. Buthe was not as impressed as Erik had wanted
him to be. (Wilson)
Subordinating conjunctions generally join asubordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).
(a) Whenhe was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)
(b) He shook his head a bit as ifin wonder that he had permitted himself to be
caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)
(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she
spoke with extreme, thoughsuppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)