Epithet. Classification of epithets
Represented (reported) speech and its types
There are three ways of reproducing actual speech: a) repetition of the exact utterance as it was spoken (direct speесh), b) conversion of the exact utterance into the relater's mode of expression (indirесt speech), and c) representation of the actual utterance by a second person, usually the author, as if it had been spoken, whereas it has not really been spoken but is only represented in the author's words (represented speech).There is also a device which conveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, thus presenting his thoughts and feelings. This device is also termed represented speech. To distinguish between the two varieties of represented speech we call the representation of the actual utterance through the author's language uttered represented speech, and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character — unuttered or inner represented speech. It is probably due to this fact that in order to convey more adequately the actual utterances of characters in emotive prose, a new way to represent direct speech came into being— represented speech.Represented speech is that form of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but retains the peculiarities of the speaker's mode of expression.Represented speech exists in two varieties: 1) uttered represented speech and 2) unuttered or inner represented speech.
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is a stylistic device where the tenor and the vehicle are diametrically opposite, antonymous. It is a combination of two words with opposite meanings, living death, cold fire, delicious torment, you are awfully nice, pretty bad.
Close to oxymoron is paradox, a statement that is contradictory or absurd on the surface: The worse — the better. War is peace. Freedom is slavery.
At first sight, oxymoronic collocations seem irrational but on closer examination we find that they disclose the complexity of things and the contradictions of life.
Oxymoron is often met within a simile (He was gentle as hell). The words have lost the primary logical meaning and are used only with emotive meaning as intensifiers; they have lost their stylistic value.
Zeugma and pun
Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when two meanings clash. The pun is another S.D. based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct and indirect). The pun is more independent. Like any S.D. it must depend on a context. But the context may be of a more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive prose:
e.g.- Did you miss my lecture ?
- Not at all.
Pun seems to be more varied and resembles zeugma in its humorous effect only.
Zeugma and pun are stylistic devices based on polysemantic effect, on interaction of primary and derivative meaning. Zeugma is a simultaneous realization of 2 meanings of one polysemantic word within the same context. - The boys took their places and their books. - Jane wasn’t a narrow woman in mind and body. She took her breakfast and her bath. Here we feel the blending of 2 or more semantically incompatible word-groups having an identical lexical item make a single construction in which this item is used only once. The resulting effect is strongly humorous/ironical. The same effect is achieved when a word upon which this trope is based is repeated. Pun— the use of a word in such a manner as to bring out different meanings or applications, or the use of words alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning, often with humorous intent. It can be also called a play of words. Puns are often used in riddles and joke. - What is the difference between a schoolmaster engine driver (one trains the mind and the other minds the train). - She was too beautiful for wards. The difference between them is very slight. The only reliable distinguishing feature between pun and zeugma is a structural one: zeugma is a structure with a verb, in which one element is central. Pun is more independent, but it must be penned by a context.
4. Antonomasia is a stylistic device in which the proper name of a person, who is famous for some of his features, is put for a person having the same feature. It is based on interaction between logical and nominal meaning of a word. Antonomasia is brief and picturesque. Several types of antonomasia are distinguished by scholars: 1) a proper noun is used for a common noun. It describes a person’s features and qualities through those commonly associated with the name of some historical figure or some mythological, religious, literary character. Its stylistic function is to give concrete expression to abstract things. - Her husband is an Othello. - Some modern Samsons were walking by. 2) a common noun is used instead of a proper noun. Often they are used to create a humorous effect - Miss Dirty Fringe, - Mr. Know-All, - Mr. Fix-it, - Mr. Facing-both-ways (вашим и нашим). They are usually spelled with hyphens between their components to stress their close syntactical and semantic relations. 3) 'speaking names' — names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. In the 18-19 centuries it was customary to provide literary characters with speaking names. Their stylistic function is to characterize a person through his name: Mr. Scrooge, Oliver Twist, Becky Sharp. They are more frequently used in Russian literature and seldom in English.
Simile
The intensification of some single feature of a thing is realized in simile. To use simile is to characterize the object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to a different class of things. The formal means to establish comparison between the tenor and the vehicle in the simile are:
1) link words as, like — establishing the analogy categorically: His face remained as immobile as stone.
2) link words as though, as if— establishing but a slight similarity. It looked as though he had been tortured. 3) lexical means to express resemblance. He reminded Julia of an old dog lying in the sun.
Simile should not be confused with simple (logical, ordinary) comparison. Structurally identical they are semantically different: objects belonging to the same class are likened in a simple comparison, while in a simile we deal with the likening of objects belonging to two different classes. The girl is as clever as her mother
Epithet. Classification of epithets
Epithetis a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning of an attributive (or adverbial) word or phrase used to characterize an object so as to give an individual perception and evaluation of some features or properties. It differs from the logical attribute which is purely objective.
Compositionally epithets may be divided into several groups:
1) Sample or word-epithets (adjectives, nouns or participles): He looked at them in animal panic. 2) Compound epithets (compound adjectives):Apple-faced woman;3)' Two-step epithets (supplied with intensifiers):a marvellously radiant smile 4) Phrase epithets(hyphenated epithets): I-am-not-that-kind-of girl look. 5) Reversed epithets— composed two nounslinked by an of-phrase: the devil of a sea
Taking into consideration their semantic properties, linguists suggest different classifications of epithets, According to I.R.Galperin, epithets may be divided into 2groups: 1) associated with the noun following it, pointing to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe: dark forest 2) unassociated with the noun, epithets that add a feature which is unexpected and which strikes the reader by its novelty. voiceless sands. Kukharenko classification includes: 1) fixed epithets. Merry X-mas, a valiant youth. 2) figurative epithets are formed of metaphors, metonymies and similes. smiling sun, sleepless pillow.