UNIT 1. Principles of classification of English consonants

Consonants are made with air stream that meets an obstruc­tion in the mouth or nasal cavities. That is why in the produc­tion of consonant sounds there is a certain degree of noise.

Consonants are the bones of a word and give it its basic shape. English accents differ mainly in vowels; the consonants are more or less the same wherever English is spoken. So if your vowels are not perfect you may still be understood by the listen­er, but if the consonants are imperfect there may be some misun­derstanding. The sentence "W-l y- -nv-t- m-1-th- p--t-?" "Will you invite me to the party?" is easy for understanding even if all the vowel letters would be left out. But if we leave all the consonant letters out: "-i- -oui--i-e -e -o -e -a-y" it is impossible to make any sense out of it. Thus we see that there are good reasons for be­ginning the course of pronunciation with consonants.

On the articulatory level the consonants change:

1. In the degree of noise.

2. In the manner of articulation.

3. In the place of articulation.

 

1. The degree of noise

According to the degree of noise English conso­nants are divided into two big classes: Class A: Noise consonants.

Class B:Sonorants.

A. In the production of noise consonants there is a noise component characteristic. Noise consonant sounds vary:

(1) In the work of the vocal cords,

(2) in the degree of force of articulation.

According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voice­less and voiced.

When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice.

Voiced consonants are: the English [b, d, g, z, v, ð, ʒ, dʒ].

If the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are voiceless.

Voiceless consonants are: the English [p, t, k, s, f, h, ∫, t∫, θ].

B.Sonorants (or sonorous consonants) are made with tone prevailing over noise because of a rather wide air passage. They are: the English [m, n, ŋ, w, r, l, j].

 

2. The manner of articulation

The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete and in­complete. When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a clo­sure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of the English [p, b, t, d, k, g, t∫, dʒ, m, n, ŋ].

In case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of speech moves towards the point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the pro­duction of the English [f, v, s, z, θ, ð, ∫,ʒ,h, w, 1, r, j].

According to the manner of articulation English consonants may be of three groups:

1. Occlusive.

2. Constrictive.

3. Occlusive-constrictive (affricates).

1. Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth. Occlusive noise consonants are called stops because the breath is com­pletely stopped at some point articulation and then it is released with a slight explosion, that is why, they are also called plo­sives. According to the work of the vocal cords stops may be voiced and voiceless.

Occlusive voiced consonants are: the English [b, d, g].

Occlusive voiceless consonants are: the English [p, t, k].

The particular quality of a sonorant depends on the position of the soft palate. Occlusive sonorants are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal.

The English occlusive nasal sonorants: [m, n,ŋ].

2. Constrictive consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the res­onator, so the air passage is constricted. Both noise consonants and sonorants may be constrictive.

Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, i. e. the consonant sounds in the articulation of which the air pas­sage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction.

The English fricatives: [f, v, θ, ð, ∫,ʒ,h];

According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced and voiceless.

The English voiced fricatives: [v, ð, z, ʒ];

The English voiceless fricatives: [f, θ, s, ∫, h];

Constrictive sonorants are also made with an incomplete ob­struction but with a rather wide air passage; so tone prevails over noise.

The English constrictive sonorants: [w, r, l, j].They are all oral, because in their production the soft palate is raised.

3. Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates are noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only two occlusive-constrictives in English: [t∫, dʒ].The English [dʒ] is voiced and [t∫] is voiceless.

Affricates are oral according to the position of the soft palate.

 

3. The place of articulation

According to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation (i. e. the place of articulation) consonants may be:

1. Labial.

2. Lingual.

3. Glottal.

1. Labial consonants are made by the lips. They may be bilabial and labio-dental. Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips are active. They are: the English [p, b, m, w].

Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are the English [f, v].

 

2. Lingual consonants are classified into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.

Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue.

According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be:

· interdental;

· alveolar;

· post-alveolar;

· palato-alveolar;

Interdental consonants are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth: the English [θ, ð].

Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge: the English [t, d, s, z, n, l].

Post-alveolar consonants are made when the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it: the English [r].

Palato-alveolar consonants are made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation or foci (front sec­ondary focus): the English [∫, ʒ, t∫, dʒ].

Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. Palatal consonants or palatals are made with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate: the English [j].

Backlingual consonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate (Lat. velum). They are: the English [k, g, ŋ].

3. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis.

Questions and tasks:

1. What is a consonant sound?

2. How do the consonants change on the articulatory level?

3. What are the two consonant classes according to the degree of noise?

4. What is the function of the vocal cords in the production of voiced and voiceless noise consonants?

5. What is a sonorant? State the difference between sonorants and noise consonants.

6. How does the position of the soft palate determine the qual­ity of a sonorant?

7. What are the three groups of consonants according to the manner of articulation?

8. What consonant sounds are called 'occlusive'?

9. What consonant sounds are called 'constrictive'? What is the difference between occlusives and constrictives?

10. What consonant sounds arecalled occlusive-constrictive?