HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN THE UK.
The architecture of the United Kingdom, or British architecture, consists of an eclectic combination of architectural styles, ranging from those that predate the creation of the United Kingdom, such as Roman, to 21st century contemporary. England has seen the most influential developments.
Within the United Kingdom are the ruins of prehistoric structures and ancient Neolithic settlements. The architecture of ancient Rome penetrated Roman Britain with “elegant villas, carefully planned towns and engineering marvels” like Hadrian’s Wall. Later, Anglo=Saxons brought a sophisticated building style of their own to Britain, but little physical evidence survived because the principal building material was wood. The Norman conquest of England, which began in 1066, marked the introduction of large-scale stone-block building techniques to Britain. Norman architecture was built on a vast scale in the heart of the Tower of London and some other famous castles as well as Gothic churches and cathedrals. Throe out Britain and Ireland, simplicity and functionality prevailed in building styles. Many castles served military purpose.
Under the feudal system that dominated Britain, fitness for purpose characterized domestic structures, particularly for the lower classes. For many, houses were “dark, primitive crude timber frames, low walls and thatched* roofs. They weren’t built to last. And they didn’t”
Between 1500 and 1600 Britain experienced a social, cultural and political change. The British architecture of this period reflects these changes. Catholic monasteries were closed, church buildings declined dramatically, supplanted** by the constructions of mansions and manor houses.
The 18th century has been described as “a great period in British Architecture” Buildings in the Queen Anne style are strongly influenced by Dutch domestic architecture: typically they are simple rectilinear designs in red brick. Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style. During Victorian period, a Gothic style was launched. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial***
* - thatched - соломенный
** - supplant – заменять, замещать
*** - controversial – спорный, противоречивый
MAKE YOUR HOME GREENER
Residential buildings are responsible for consuming 27% of the total amount of energy consumed within Europe and are the biggest of global warming in the world. This is a fact that has, until recently been overlooked by law-markers trying to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, who have concentrated their efforts on industry and transport. The EU has now is issued buildings by 45 million tons before 2012. This means that each of us can now save planet from the comfort of our own homes.
The first things we can do are simple and easy. We can block up draughts, switch off unnecessary lights and make sure taps are not left running. The nest step requires more planning and some expense, but as well as saving energy, we will also save on bills.
Many homes have loft insulation, but it is rarely enough. Most insulation is 100mm thick, but to be truly effective the recommended thickness is 200-300mm. Full insulation can have a dramatic effect on energy consumption. It can save up to 25 percent on your heating bills. A variety of materials are available, but one of the most environmentally friendly is cellulose in the form of compressed recycled newsprint which has been fireproofed.
We should use energy efficient light bulbs. These are usually expensive to buy but consume less than half the energy of standard bulbs. Also, these bulbs last much longer than conventional light bulbs reducing the consumption of resources.
Thermal solar panels are very efficient. They are capable of providing all the hot water you need even in Britain’s climate. Photovoltaic panels can be fitted as solar roof tiles or solar windows and are now capable of generating about half of an average home’s electricity needs. A large conservatory with lots of glass panels on the south side of a building will tap light and warmth and reduce the need for lighting.
We can install a “grey” water recycling system. At present water used to flush the toilets is of the same drinkable quality that comes out of the taps. This is an unnecessary waste of energy used in water purification. A grey water recycling system cleans water that has been used for washing and sends it through the toilet system reducing the use of clean drinking water.
New buildings can incorporate much more energy saving features in their design. They can have a timber structure, extensive insulation, electronic environmental controls, triple glazing, a non-polluting heating system will determine housing’s contribution to global warming. It’s down to each and every one of us, so get insulation.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
The basic idea of international trade is simple: each country produced goods or services that can be either consumed at home or exported to other countries. The main difference between domestic trade and international trade is the use of foreign currencies to pay for the goods and services crossing international borders. Although global trade is often added up in U.S. dollars, the trading itself involves various currencies. and services, there a resulting flow of funds; money returns to the exporting nation, and money flows out of the importing nation. Trade and investment are two-way street, and with a minimum of trade barriers,
Whenever a country imports or exports goods international trade and investment usually make everyone better off.
Consumers are given the opportunity to buy the best products at the best prices. By opening up markets, a government allows its citizens to produce and export those things they are best at and to import the rest, choosing from whatever the world has to offer.
Some trade barriers will always exist as long as any two countries have different sets of laws. However, when a country decides to protect its economy by erecting artificial trade barriers, the result is often damaging to everyone, including those people whose barriers were meant to protect.
The Great Depression of the 1930s, for example, spread around the world when U.S. decided to erect trade barriers to protect local producers. As a result jobs were lost, the world entered into a long period of economic decline.
In 1973 was the oil crisis. This was a historic event and one more example that took place in the 20th century and showed that there were moments in the world where foreign investment and international trade were privileged as mecanisms for reviving the economy. Economists of most countries support this view-point.
The cost of imported oil rose 200% in 1970-79, by which time 45% of the U.S. supply came from imports, and the jump in oil prices led to a period of stagnation and inflation that lasted almost a decade. Even America’s permanent clients like Ira took advantage of its distress, raising the price of oil in December 1973, while the Saudi Arabian Royal family kept the oil embargo going until March 1974. American oil companies also took advantage, they bought up coal, natural gas companies in hopes of rising prices. By the end of the decade, seven of the fifteen largest coal companies also happened to be oil companies.
Globalization occurred in this period, benefited the structure of foreign investment. By 1977, a third of American exports went to the Third World. Brazil go $31 billion in loans in 1973-79. In 1982-88, nearly thirty countries were in default or near-default on $650 billion in debt.
Worldwide inflation increased by one-third in the 1970s and consumer prices rose. These crises destabilized important U.S. allies like Turkey, which used half its export earning to pay for oil. A full list of the countries whose political objectives were threatened by economics would be almost endless.
Which managers are required by Russian labour market?
A manager is a rather new profession for the Russian labor market. Very first representatives of this profession appeared at the end 80th and where mostly needed by foreign companies which were coming to Russia.
Russian companies started to look for managers only 10 years later, when their owners felt interest in politics or in other spheres of social life and started to pass every business passes in its development. These period or stages are the following:
- Building up;
- Strengthening;
- Stabilizing;
- Maturing;
- Descending.
The last stage might be accompanied by rather serious crises. The last stage should not be considered as final. On the contrary, it initiates a new circle. As a rule, very company is subject to this type of development.
Every stage offers new problems which can me tackled only by a professional, possessing special skills and experience. These skills and experience called competencies help managers to determine adequate strategy progressive business development which will hinder its liquidation.
Managers may be subdivided into different groups due to the requirements of the concrete stage of business development.
Let us examine some examples.
The main person at the stage of stability is a financial manager.
The stage of building up and strengthening needs mostly the efforts of commercial manager.
Anticrisis managers are new for the Russian labor market. They appeared after the default in 1998 and soon turned into the main element of management. It was highly professional group who succeeded to draw their companies out off the coming bankruptcy and to hold up their position in the market.
Managers of conservative type who concentrate on formal means of business organization – work with documents and guidelines, etc. better correspond to the stabilizing stage.
Today much attention is paid to form teams which comprise managers, possessing different professional qualities. Such teams distribute tasks and positions between their members. These tasks and positions may be shifted from one to another according to the stage of bussines development.
Recently one more group of managers are appeared in Russia. They are called brand-managers. These managers are characterized by high professional quality competencies. They are creative, constantly trying to set up new and original solutions and patterns in seen in business. Brand-managers are highly paid in the labor market.
The last and the superior type of managers are consultants. They, as a rule, are highly professional and independent. They are not in the staff of the company and are required in the following cases: when the owner of the business doesn’t rely on his top-managers, or when they are incapable of offering a new and efficient strategy.
Consultants are considered to be universal managers, or managers with very rich experience and knowledge. Their main aim Russia is to make business adopt a civilized face.
NUCLEAR FISSION.
Practically every physics teacher has at some time attempted to catch the imagination of this elementary students by stating that there is sufficient energy in a lump of coal the size of egg to serve as fuel for a transatlantic voyage. Although this statement is quite correct, it is doubtful that even a professor took such a statement seriously prior to January 1939. But what took place in January 1939 to change the attitude of scientists toward subatomic energy from one of skepticism to one of optimism? The answer lies in the discovery of uranium fission by Hahn and Strassman.
The story began at the University of Poma. The neutron had just been discovered by Chadwick in England, and a young Italian physicist Enrico Fermi exposed practically all the elements of the periodic table to these unchanged particles. His efforts were rewarded by the discovery of a large number of new radioactive substances. The usual process involved the capture of a neutron by the nucleus in question. This, in turn, often produced an unstable nucleus possessing too much mass for its change. This atom then proceeded to return to the stable state by emitting a beta ray. This, of course, resulted in an element one unit higher in atomic number than the parent atom. What, reasoned Fermi, would happen if uranium were exposed to neutrons? Uranium stands ninety-second and last in the periodic table. If the above mechanism were followed, it would finish with an element of atomic number 93. But in all nature no such element was known to exist. So Fermi and his associates did just that. After extended exposure to neutrons uranium showered an activity that could be broken into four half-lives: 10 seconds, 40 seconds, 13 minutes and 90 minutes.
Now there are three stable isotopes of uranium, so the appearance of four half-lives showered that some unusual process was operating. It was reasonable to guess that one of these activities corresponded to an active form of element 93. Element 93 would appear in the periodic table in the same column with Mn, Ma, ect. and presumably have similar chemical properties. Hence, to test this point, a manganese salt was added to uranium salt solution which had been irradiated by neutrons. The Mn was then precipitated as MnO2. About one sixth of the 13-minute and 90-minute period activity was brought down by this procedure. None of the natural uranium activity appeared. This proved that the active bodies were chemically not like uranium or its immediate daughter products, inevitably present in uranium. It was found further that if small amounts of an isotope of radium or actinium were added to the uranium solution neither would be precipitated with MnO2. This, together with certain other facts, permitted Fermi to conclude that the precipitated activities were not to be associated with any element between atomic numbers 86 and 92 inclusive.
MOLECULAR SELF-ASSEMBLY
Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner.
These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson-Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.
Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most notably Watson-Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.
NANOMATERIALS
This includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.
Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods.
Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications.
Nanoscale materials are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional Silicon solar cells.
Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the next generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging is in the nearest future.
MULTITASKING
From earliest times people have been trying to do several things simultaneously: to read books, cook dinner, talk on the phone, and do many other things at the same time. As cars have become available, the time of multitasking has increased: people drive, listen to the radio, eat and smoke in their cars at the same time. Now an arsenal of new technology makes it possible for everyone to multitask all day.
The computer industry introduced the word «multitasking» into vocabulary. Today millions of people can set their personal computers to multitask while they are themselves multitasking: talking on the phone, receiving faxes, and looking through newspapers at the same time. While multitasking is not bad for computers, it may be bad for some people.
Psychologists say it is possible for human brain to process two or more tasks at the same time, but only one of them receives full attention. Multitasking makes people’s stressful lives even more stressful. Because of the human brain limitation, multitasking can lead to many mistakes.
People do not like to talk to a person who is doing something else while talking to them. Multitaskers also like to do more than one thing at once even in their leisure time. They cannot watch television without reading a newspaper or have dinner without watching TV.
Now multitasking takes place nearly everywhere. A lot of businessmen and managers are never far from their notebook computers and telephones. They are almost always doing two or three things at once. On airplanes they are using their notebook computers to answer e-mail messanges.
While driving, they are speaking on their phones. «Why wait?» they ask. «That is the world we live in right now».
COMPUTERS
When Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, invented the first calculating machine in 1812 he could hardly have imagined the situation we find ourselves in today. Nearly everything we do in the modern world is helped, or even controlled, by computers, the complicated descendants of his simple machine. Computers are being used more and more extensively in the world today, for the simple reason that they are far more efficient than human beings. They have much better memories and can store huge amount of information, and they can do calculations in a fraction of the time taken by a human mathematician. No man alive can do 500,000 sums in one second, but an advanced computer can. In fact, computers can do many of the things we do, but faster and better. They can pay wages, reserve seats on planes, control machines in factories, work out tomorrow’s weather, and even play chess, write poetry, or compose music.
And nowadays modern electronic computers are referred to as «electronic brains», but they really don’t do their own thinking. Some has to provide the machine with a basic on which it can make decision. In short, the electronic computers are no better than the mathematicians who use them. Any time a digital computer is used, whether for computations or simple decision making, it has to be told what to do. A mathematician sets up a problem by writing a «program» of instructions for the computers, and then the machine does the work in a very rapid fashion.
These modern developments have a tremendous impact upon our civilization. Mathematical logic as a branch of mathematics is finding many practical applications dealing with design, control, and use of these machines, particularly with respect to decision processes.
These machines are being used for more applications in the field of social science and business. This means that people in these areas will need to have a better understanding of mathematics than ever before if they are to make full use of what is available to them. Also, these machines have opened up many employment opportunities for those trained in mathematics. Modern computers need mathematicians to program problems for the machines. High interest and ability in mathematics are essential ingredients for success in this field.
THE INTERNET
The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all over the world, began in the United State in 1969 as a military experiment. It was designed to service a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two computers on the Internet will be also to stay in touch with each other as long as there is a single route between them.
Most of the Internet host computers (more than 50%) are in the United States, while the rest are located in more than 100 other countries. Although the number of host computers can be counted, nobody knows exactly how many people use the Internet, there are millions worldwide, and their numbers is growing by thousands each month.
In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a reliable alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunications systems of these countries. Commercial users can communicate cheaply over the Internet with the rest of the world. When they send e-mail messages, they only have to pay for phone calls to their local service, not for calls across their countries or around the world.
But saving money is only the first step. If people see that they can make money from the Internet, commercial of this network will increase. For example, some western architecture companies and garment centers already transmit their basic design and concepts over the Internet into China, where they are reworked and refined by skilled – but inexpensive – Chinese computer – aided – design specialists.
However, some problems remain. The most important is security. When you send e-mail message to somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and computers. When it becomes necessary to send important information over the network, encoding programs may be useful. Some American banks and companies conduct transactions over the Internet. However, there are still both commercial and technical problems which will take to be resolved.
Англо-Русский словарь
Unit I
construction строительство
construction site строительная площадка
residential construction гражданское строительство
enterprises предприятия
labour and equipment труд и оборудование
civil engineer инженер-строитель
to meet housing needs удовлетворять потребности в жилье
advantages and disadvantages преимущества и недостатки
contractor and customer подрядчик и заказчик
to employ использовать, применять
to erect воздвигать
to design проектировать
to assemble собирать
to manufacture производить
to fabricate изготавливать
to load нагружать
structure (member element) конструкция
performance действие, характеристика
to fail разрушаться
to demolish разбирать (здание)
skill мастерство, квалификация
cost стоимость
techniques методы
apartment buildings жилые дома
skyscrapers (highrise) небоскрёбы
to advance продвигаться вперёд
Unit II
to withstand выдерживать, противостоять
to eliminate исключать, выбрасывать
to alloy вплавлять
to reinforce усиливать, укреплять
to conduct проводить, управлять, руководить
to occur иметь место, случаться
to refer ссылаться, относиться
to include включать, содержать
to ensure обеспечивать, гарантировать
to handle перемещать, транспортировать
to obtain получать, приобретать
to cause вызывать, производить, влиять
to erect строить, основывать, воздвигать
to adjust устанавливать, регулировать, приспосабливать
to mount поднимать
to demand требовать, нуждаться
to accommodate приспосабливать
to progress развиваться, делать успех
to hoist поднимать груз
to discharge разгружать (ся)
raw material сырьё
ability способность
reinforced concrete железобетон
advantage преимущество
property свойство
weight вес
load груз
crane (tower crane) кран (башенный кран)
rail-mounted tower crane подъёмный кран, перемещающийся на рельсах
boom стрела (крана)
floor мостовой настил, площадка
curves кривые железнодорожные пути
tracks (рельсовые) пути
to lift materials поднимать материалы
installation of separate elements установка отдельных частей
Unit III
landscape architecture ландшафтная архитектура
urban architecture городская архитектура
urban design городское проектирование
architectural design архитектурное проектирование
skyscrapers небоскрёбы
construction materials строительные материалы
ecological demands экологические требования
approach to building design подход к проектированию зданий
available construction materials существующие строительные материалы
to employ natural landscape использовать природный ландшафт
to reduce the consumption of energy снижать потребление энергии
to influence present-day architecture влиять на
современную архитектуру
simplification of form упрощение формы
mass production of brick, steel, concrete, etc. массовое производство кирпича, стали, бетона, и т.д.
basic design principles основные принципы проектирования
principle of durability принцип прочности, долговечности
to arrange a plan составить план
to involve money of investors включать деньги инвесторов
to handle modern construction machines управлять современной
строительной техникой.
Unit IV
to manage руководить
management управление
market рынок
to employ предоставлять работу
efficiency продуктивность
to aroid избегать
to ensure обеспечивать
to acquire приобретать
to give one’s best выкладываться
to get by отделаться
to charge назначать
to hire нанимать
to compete конкурировать
competitive market конкурентоспособный рынок
competition конкуренция
subordinate подчинённый
profit польза
supply and demand спрос и предложение
commodities предметы потребления
trade and investment торговля и инвестиция
better off богаче
output выпуск
surplus излишек
integrity честность, порядочность
expenditures траты
to consume потреблять
consumer потребитель
a relative price относительная цена
a reasonable price разумная цена
asking price запрашиваемая цена
cost price себестоимость
cut price цена со скидкой
buyers and sellers покупатели и продавцы
idleness бездействие
Unit V
environment окружающая среда
receiving environment среда, принимающая загрязняющие вещества
riches природные богатства
to harm наносить вред
fossil fuels ископаемые топлива
nuclear fuels ядерные топлива
greenhouse gases газы, вызывающие парниковый эффект
to pollute загрязнять
pollution загрязнение
byproduct побочный продукт
carbon dioxide двуокись углерода
to demand требовать
demands потребность
to meet demands удовлетворять потребности
to deliver поставлять, снабжать; выпускать
solar cells солнечные батареи
source источник
renewable sources возобновляемые источники
non-renewable sources невозобновляемые источники
replenish восполнять
burning сжигание
fusion reaction реакция ядерного синтеза
long-lasting damage долгосрочный ущерб
contamination загрязнение; заражение; отравление
adverse side effect неблагоприятные побочные действия
treatment очистка; обработка
water and wastewater treatment водоподготовка и
очистка сточных вод
discharge сброс, слив
to supply поставлять, снабжать, обеспечивать
water supplies запасы воды
threshold concentrations предельно допустимая концентрация
requirements требования
ozone depletion истощение озонового слоя
ozone thinning уменьшение толщины озонового слоя
ecology house экологичный дом
to tolerate materials быть толерантным к стройматериалам
non-toxic building нетоксичное здание
to consume потреблять
consumption потребление
to contribute вносить вклад
сложные союзы
according to (in accordance with) согласно
due to
thanks to благодаря
owing to
because of из-за
in order to для того, чтобы
by means of посредством, при помощи
irrespective of независимо от
instead of вместо
with respect to по отношению, что касается
with regard to по отношению, что касается
prior to до
in terms of через
with reference to с учетом
without reference to без учета
as well as (as well) также
both . . . and и . . . и
neither . . . nor ни . . . ни
either . . . or или . . . или
Компьютерная верстка – Зуева М.И., Есина И.В.
Компьютерный набор – Запольнова Е.В., Сержантов Р.В., Лысова Т.Н., Захаренкова Т.М.
Корректоры – Шабашова Е.В.