Applying Computers in Criminal Justice System
Text 1
Co-operation in Combating International Crime (some aspects)
Over the last 25 years international crime has expanded enormously. Individuals and companies are being subjected to increasing pressure from criminals leading to widespread feelings of insecurity. Interpol's fundamental role is to facilitate communication, a continuing exchange between countries. In this way Interpol is in a position to overcome the barriers to investigation caused by national frontiers.
Crimes committed against individuals (such as murder, robbery, armed robbery, serious assault, rape, kidnapping, extortion, hostage-taking and offences against children) often become 'international' because the criminals commit an offence in one country and then take refuge in another. Most of these criminal activities are monitored by the General Crime Branch and, as a result, modus operandi and 'operational matter' circulars are often prepared and sent out to Member States.
Traffic in human beings, prostitution. Almost all these offences are covered by international conventions. In the trafficking of women, as well as in illegal immigrant smuggling, the perpetrators (i.e. recruiters, smugglers and exploiters) may form an organized group or serve as independently operating links in a chain of individuals working together.
Crimes against property (such as armed robbery of banks or security vehicles, traffic in stolen motor vehicles, theft of vehicles carrying freight, of identity and travel documents and of works of art) are often committed by gangs of thieves operating in several countries or by highly skilled international specialists.
The General Secretariat publishes a vehicle registration brochure to assist in identifying vehicles rapidly and the Interpol Guide to Vehicle Registration Documents in Europe and North Africa. In 1996 the General Secretariat created a centralized database of stolen and/or misappropriated motor vehicles enabling Member States to enter information on stolen vehicles and to carry out searches on vehicles which are the subject of investigations.
International traffic in cultural property. The theft of works of art is a particular concern. To combat this kind of crime effectively, a specialized computer database has been developed containing detailed descriptions of stolen works of art. Interpol is conscious of a need to increase international awareness of crimes of this nature. "Wanted” posters are produced twice a year and a major project is under way to put a large proportion of the visual data. International conferences and working meetings are held regularly to develop and implement strategies against the illegal traffic of cultural property.
Firearms and explosives used for criminal purposes is another sector covered by the General Crime Branch. A database contains information on traffic in firearms, the use of explosives for criminal purposes and data on improvised explosive devices. Access is restricted to ensure maximum confidentiality.
Combating international terrorism. The Terrorism Branch collects information about acts of terrorism and works closely with the international civil aviation agencies on measures to counter crimes against civil aviation.
It is important to recognize that the General Assembly resolution adopted in 1984 in Luxembourg emphasized the criminal nature of acts of terrorism. It states:
"When offences are committed by persons with definite political motives but when the offences committed have no direct connection with the political life of the offenders' country or the cause for which they are fighting, the crime may no longer be deemed to come within the scope of Article 3."
Fraudis a term which covers a variety of economic offences, many of which have international aspects. For instance, fraudulent commercial operations conducted to the detriment of both individuals and governments may constitute serious threats to the economies of victim countries.
Such offences which are particularly complex and usually involve large sums of money are often committed by international specialists. This form of international crime is currently one of the areas of greatest concern.
Information technology crime. Increasing use of information technology has meant greater law enforcement activity in combating computer crime. The need for specialist knowledge in this field has led to an ongoing whereby regional working parties, overseen by an international steering committee, have produced amongst other things international training courses for law enforcement officers and a computer crime manual. These initiatives are continuously updated to ensure that information on the latest technology is always available to investigators in police services in Member States around the world.
Corruption. Also within the sphere of economic crime, corruption has a major impact internationally on the economies of many countries. The law enforcement interest in all aspects of corruption has been enhanced by the recent increase in cooperation with other international organizations.
Environmental crime such as illegal traffic in hazardous waste, is also considered to be a form of economic crime and, as always, close co-operation among Member States is encouraged through Interpol.
The Forensic Analysis Unit works with counterfeit banknotes. It collects, analyses and disseminates technical data such as the assignment of international indicatives, method of manufacture, the association of related banknotes and documents and any available descriptive commercial information to help identify the equipment and materials used.
Illicit drug traffic. The Drugs Sub-Directorate enhances co-operation between Member States and stimulates the exchange of information between all national and international enforcement bodies concerned with countering the illicit production, traffic and use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.
A number of projects have been established to address topics which are particularly serious and widespread. Recently these have included:
§ Operation "Hostal" - investigating the activities of West African criminal groups who are smuggling cocaine by post from South America principally to the African continent.
§ Operation "Show Me How" - investigating the activities of West African criminal groups who are smuggling heroin from Thailand and Pakistan by post to destinations all round the world.
§ Operation "Black Powder" - investigating a Colombian trafficking organization which has smuggled cocaine to Europe uniquely mixed with industrial pigments to disguise its narcotic content.
These projects are ongoing and have enjoyed success. Several arrests and seizures have been made as a direct result of these operations.
(from Internet www)
Notes:
has expanded enormously – расширила границы
are being subjected to – подверглись влиянию
to facilitate – способствовать, продвигать, содействовать
caused by - вызвано
to take refuge – находить убежище, пристанище
modus operandi – метод действия («почерк») преступника
a vehicle registration brochure – журнал регистрации угнанных транспортных средств
to enter information – владеть информацией
visual data – наглядные данные
to implement strategies – приводить в исполнение
to counter crimes – противостоять преступности
detriment – ущерб, вред
available – доступный, относящийся к делу
member states – государства-члены
impact – удар, толчок; влияние, воздействие
has been enhanced by – увеличился, возраст
hazardous – рискованный, опасный
counterfeit – подделывать; подделка
disseminates – распространяет
Text 2
Computer Crime
Homicide and rape have changed little for centuries, but forms of theft have altered greatly. For example, train robbery did not exist until trains began carrying currancy, gold, and wealthy passengers. Thieves have always adjusted their strategics to the technologies and opportunities of the times. One of the latest features is theft by computer.
The electronic computeris only about fifty years old but is already an integral (necessary) aspect of our lives. Business and finance, aswe know it, would be impossible without the computer. The computer seems for most of us to be a mysterious genius which guides rockets in space, play chess, etc. But it is no genius. It is a stupid tool for handling great numbers of data with incredible (невероятный) speed. It is all the same for the computer to whom it obeys and for what purposes. The computer cannot identify fraudulent checks and fraudulent data. When the dataare of great value, the computer becomes a target for fraud, especially the data concerning property, services, and money which can be transferred from one account to another within the computer. The thieves are not only bookkeepers and tellers (кассир в банке), but also computer programmers, operators and engineers.
Because the computer is sonew, all the ways it can be used in crime are yet to be discovered.
There are three basic criminal uses of computers:
1. Embezzlement. This is a modern workplace crime. An employee writes a computer program which diverts company assents (актив, имущество) for his or her personal use. So here the trusted (доверенные) employees steal from their employers.
2. Falsification of company records. This is usually a crime by company managers who are attempting to mispresent the company’s assets. Here the crime is committed by the company, not against it.
3. Theft of computer data. This crime may be committed byinsiders (сотрудник oрганизации) or by outsiders with insiders’ assistance. It includes stealing of programs - which can be very valuable - for use of other companies, or the theft of other information stored in the computer which may be confidential and valuable.
Of course, companies and financial institutions have used many security means to prevent and discover computer crime. But in spite of this criminal can do a great damage in a very short. time
Offender characteristics.
Here we are dealing with a new kind of crime. The offenders are not like the typical street criminals. They are young - eighteen to thirtyyears old - andpossess selfconfindence, recklessness (отвага) and desperation (безрассудство). But, above all, theyare good employees.
The best way to identify the potential perpetrator is on the basis of skills, knowledge and ассеss (доступ) possessed by people engaged in computer technology. Perpetrators are usually bright, highly motivated, courageous like adventures and are qualified people, who know as much about the system as the designers do.
In the computer crimes there are from two to dozens of people cooperating in the offence because of the complex technology of computers.
Computer manipulations are often used in colleges and Universities by students to change their grades on their transcripts or to receive the right answer to their research work.
As the technology exists the computer crimes will take on new forms and will represent serious problems for present law enforcement.
Notes:
altered – изменились
have adjusted – разрешили споры, уладили
incredible - невероятный
assents – активы, имущество
trusted employees – доверенные сотрудники
insiders – cотрудники организации
damage – ущерб, урон, убытки
recklessness - отвага
desperation - безрассудство
acesess – доступ
Text 3
Applying Computers in Criminal Justice System
Computers are extensively used in the criminal justice information systems in a growing number of countries. Computers help the criminal justice system to work effectively and efficiently, they can improve the quality of justice. The first computer systems used by the policewere data based systems for recording criminal histories and recording details of the cases to be heard in court. They assisted in the conduct of trial. Now widely spread computerization assists in the detection of crime, provides better and more accurate information to help judges to make better decisions. Computers store information accurately, they assist in the conviction of the guilty, assist day-to-day operation of the criminal justice process. Computers help: law enforcement officers in tracing the past criminal history; prosecutors- to prepare and handle the increasing number of cases; judges- to obtain accurate information on the past criminal record of persons found guilty; prisons- to record details of inmates; police agencies- to get information quickly and accurately.
Crime prevention. Computerized criminal statistics systems can be used to provide accurate and objective information on the numbers of reported crimes and of trends in those numbers with the aim of crime prevention.
Detection of crime. Large-scale computer-based information systems can assist investigating officers in reviewing and analysing large quantities of information gathered in the course of major investigation. Data-based systems containing criminal histories, modus operandi,etc., can assist in the identification of suspects and missing persons. Fingerprint record systems can assist in identifying suspects from scene-of-crime investigations and in the positive identification of known suspects. Data-based systems canbe used to record details of missing persons, stolen property,etc., thereby assisting in the solution of crimes. Recording of scene-of-crime details is done more rapidly and accurately.
Computerized case investigationsystems can assist in the efficient preparationof cases fortrial, thereby reducing the time between apprehension and trial.With the use of computers there is a better presentation of case papers.
There is no simple recipe how computers can best be applied to criminal justice. Computers come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. They can be small desktop microcomputers or large, room-size computers; they can operate in isolation or they can be connected together; the programs and information on them can be centralized at one point or can be distributed over a wide area; the computer programme can be designed to serve one criminal justice agency or all agencies of the criminal justice system, a local area or a whole country.
The contents of criminal history system, names of recorded serious offenders, dates of conviction, details of offences and sentences, details of location of offences, details of other offences taken into consideration, in some cases details of offenders’ modus operandi. The same system may also carry stolen vehicle, missing persons, unsolved crimes, stolen property, drugs use register.
Computerization changes the forms of communication among individuals within an agencyor between agencies usually making communication easier and more rapid.
Notes:
data based systems - база данных
imates - заключенные
missing persons – без вести пропавшие лица
modus operandi– метод действия преступника («почерк»)
Тема: «The Faculty of Law of the Cambridge University»
Text 4
1. The University of Cambridge has attracted many of the best minds since 1209, when a group of scholars left Oxford to set up a new institution in Cambridge. It’s one of the oldest and most prestigious universities in the world. Today the University has grown to around 17,500 students (7,000 of whom are graduate students), and 3,000 teaching and administrative staff. Fifty per cent of the graduate students come from overseas, and well over a third are women. The University and its Colleges are now spread throughout the city. The College system of the University gives a student an environment in which one can meet people from other disciplines and participate in a wide variety of cultural, sporting and social activities. The contact with College staff and fellow students provides an excellent opportunity for broadening students’ interests and horizons, getting involved in University life, and making new friends.
2. Law has been studied and taught at Cambridge University since the 13th century. The core subjects of legal study in all European universities at that time were the Roman law and the Canon law of the Church. Early graduates of the Cambridge Faculty of Canon Law held the highest judicial positions in Europe. The Faculty of Canon Law was closed in 1535, and in 1540 King Henry VIII appointed the first Professor of Civil Law. English law was added to the curriculum in 1800. Examinations in law for the Bachelor’s Degree began in 1858. Since then the Faculty has grown steadily in size and in the range of its interests.
3. Today, the Faculty has more than seventy teaching staff. There are at present 16 professors, 10 readers, and over 70 other University, Faculty and College Teaching Officers. They include specialists in almost every aspect of English law and its history, the laws of other countries (especially European), European Community law, public and private law, Roman law, legal philosophy, and criminology. The Law Faculty also has a long-standing research tradition in such areas as international and comparative law, jurisprudence and legal history. Some Faculty members collaborate with other related faculties such as Economics, Philosophy, Land Economy, History, and Social and Political Sciences.
4. The number of students, which is one of the largest of any law school in the United Kingdom, comprises about 750 undergraduate students and 250 graduate students. Graduates from the Faculty are prominent in academic life, in the judiciary, and in both branches of the legal profession. A lot of famous jurists have been among the University's graduates and the Faculty has many connections with the legal profession at all levels. Most of those who do not enter the academic profession become practicing lawyers, or go into closely related fields such as banking, insurance, accounting and brokerage.
5. The new building of the Law Faculty was opened in 1995. It brings together on one site the Squire Law Library that contains one of the largest legal collections in the UK, the Faculty's lecture and seminar rooms and the administrative offices. It has increased the space for readers of the library and it also provides a focus for Faculty activities, such as formal meetings, informal gatherings, and moots. A new building for the Institute of Criminology was completed in the summer of 2005.
6. The Faculty houses a number of research centres with particular specializations. The Faculty's research centres include the following: Institute of Criminology, Centre for International Law, Centre for European Legal Studies, Centre for Corporate and Commercial Law, Centre for Public Law, Centre for Intellectual Property and Information Law, Centre for Business Research, Centre for Tax Law, Cambridge Forum for Legal and Political Philosophy, Cambridge Socio-Legal Group.
7. Under the SOCRATES/ERASMUS programme, the Cambridge Law Faculty has signed an agreement with the Universities of France, Germany, the Netherlands and Spain. The scheme permits between 10 and 15 law students from Cambridge and the same number from partner Universities to participate in exchange each year. The first exchange with the Faculty of Law started in 1992. This programme is to promote student mobility in Europe.
8. The famous Cambridge University Law Society is open to all members of the University, and especially to all law students. The Society, whose principal officers are themselves law students, meets weekly during term to hear guest speakers (including judges, political figures and visiting scholars). Barristers' and solicitors' evenings are organized so that students can meet members of the legal profession informally. The Society also organizes moots, which are imaginary cases designed to provide elementary practice in advocacy.
Тема: «Harvard Law School (HLS)»
Text 5
1. Harvard University is the oldest institution of higher education in the United States. The University has grown from nine students with one master to around 18,000 undergraduate and graduate students. Over 14,000 people work at Harvard, including more than 2,000 teaching staff. Seven presidents of the United States were graduates of Harvard. It has produced more than 40 Nobel laureates. Harvard College was established in 1636 and was named for its first benefactor, John Harvard, a young minister who, upon his death in 1638, left his library and half of his estate to the new institution. The University is situated in the city of Cambridge, not far from Boston, Massachusetts. Harvard’s students come from all 50 states and more than 70 countries around the world.
2. Harvard Law School was established in 1817, it’s one of the oldest and most prestigious country’s law schools. HLS is one of the most famous law faculties in the world. Today, the School has more than 280 teaching and administrative staff, about 1,800 undegraduate and graduate students study here. HLS provides more than 260 courses and 18 different research centers and programs. The School offers several degree programs for graduate students. It provides a lot of of opportunities for students to conduct research or study abroad, hundreds of students take part in law practice. Harvard Law School is the world's leading center of legal education and research. It provides unique opportunities to study law in an energetic and creative educational environment.
3. Fourteen of the School's graduates have served in the Supreme Court of the U.S. Six of the current nine judges of the Supreme Court attended HLS. The 19th president of the United States, some U.S. attorneys general and federal judges graduated from HLS. In addition to their achievements in law and politics, Harvard Law School graduates are also prominent in other fields. Many have become influential journalists, writers, media and business leaders and even professional athletes.
4. The teaching staff of Harvard Law School are among the world's foremost scholars in their fields. Students learn from them in the classroom, through a combination of new and old educational methods, and work with them as well on research projects and other activities. The eighty-one professors of the Law School offer a great number of courses. They cover every aspect of legal study and approach the law from a wide variety of methodological perspectives. The classes include lectures, Socratic-method discussions, seminars and legal practice. The Law School's professors regularly argue cases before the Supreme Court, testify before Congress, and advise developing nations on how to create effective legal systems.
5. Harvard Law School education includes intensive clinical experience. The undegraduate training is divided between study and clinical practice. Numerous classes have clinical components, which allow students to make practical use of what they learn in the classroom in a wide variety of legal organizations. The Law School's students work during the year and in the summers for human rights groups abroad, public organizations, as well as for the most significant law firms of the country.
6. The School provides courses in every major area of legal study. A curriculum adjusts quickly to changes in the legal profession and in the world. The School offers a lot of courses in such areas as legal history, international legal system, international human rights, global trade, international law, comparative law, civil procedure, contract law, property law, administrative law, criminal law, family law, constitutional law and others.
7. The Harvard Law School academic law library is one of the largest in the world. It holds more than one and a half million books and manuscripts and it is expanding in many new directions. The library supports the teaching and research activities of the School.
8. Harvard Law School's research programs and centers produce the most modern work in a wide range of fields and disciplines. They provide students with valuable research opportunities. The Law School has its own Legal Services Center and Criminal Justice Institute which give students excellent opportunities to provide legal services in both the civil and criminal legal systems.
9. The famous Harvard Legal Aid Bureau is the oldest student-run legal services office in the country. It was founded in 1913. The Bureau is to give the students the opportunity to develop professional skills as part of the clinical programs of Harvard Law School. Students at the Bureau practice under the supervision of admitted attorneys. As a result, students get practical experience of appearing in court, negotiating with opposing attorneys, and working directly with clients.