БЕЗЛИЧНЫЕ И НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННО-ЛИЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ

Английские предложения отличаются от русских тем, что в них всегда есть подлежащее и сказуемое. Поэтому в безличных предложениях, когда нет подле­жащего, в качестве формального подлежащего исполь­зуется местоимение it.

It is cold today. Сегодня холодно.

It rains. Идет дождь

Как видим, безличные предложения такого типа состоят из местоимения it, которое не переводится, глагола-связки в нужном по смыслу времени и имен­ной части сказуемого, выраженного чаще всего име­нем прилагательным. Именная часть может быть так­же выражена именем существительным или именем числительным.

It’s nice to meet you. Приятно познакомиться.

It is nine o’clock now. Сейчас девять часов. Очень часто безличные предложения описывают яв­ление природы, состояние погоды, обозначают время, расстояние.

Вопросительная и отрицательная формы безличных предложений образуются по тем же правилам, что и вопросительные и отрицательные формы предложений с именным составным сказуемым.

Is it cold? — Холодно?

Wasn’t it interesting? — Разве это не было интерес­но?

Isn’t it funny? — Разве это не смешно?

Частица not ставится после первого вспомогатель­ного глагола.

6.C Переведи на английский язык:

1. Сегодня холодно.

2. Идет снег целый день.

3. Сейчас утро.

4. Было приятно познакомиться с ва­шим другом.

5. Поздно. Пора спать.

6. Разве это не смешно?

7. Сейчас уже 10 часов утра.

8. На улице холодно?

9. Сейчас ранняя весна, но уже тепло.

10. Это далеко отсюда?

7.1 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERS:

Construction engineers engage in the design of temporary structures, quality assurance and quality control, building and site layout surveys, on site material testing, concrete mix design, cost estimating, planning and scheduling, safety engineering, materials procurement, and cost engineering and budgeting.

To complete projects construction engineers rely on plans and specifications created by architects, engineers and other constructors. During most of the 20th century structures have been first designed then engineering staff ensure it is built to plans and specifications by testing and overseeing the construction. Previous to the 20th century and more commonly since the start of the 21st century structures are designed and built in combination, allowing for site considerations and construction methods to influence the design process.

Keeping a workplace safe is a key to having a successful construction company. It is the construction engineer’s job to make sure that everything is conducted correctly. Construction engineers are also involved heavily with the construction schedule and document control as well as budget and cost control. Their role on site is to provide construction information, including repairs, requests for information, change orders and payment applications.

Construction engineers should have strong understanding for math and science, but many other skills are required, including critical thinking, listening, learning, problem solving, monitoring and decision making. Construction engineers have to be able to think about all aspects of a problem and listen to others’ ideas so that they can learn everything about a project before it begins. They must maintain project control of labour and equipment for safety, to ensure the project is on schedule and monitor quality control. When a problem occurs it is the construction engineer who will create and enact a solution.

7.2 Заполни таблицу:

1. The areas in which construction engineers are involved.

2. The design of structures in the 19th - 21st centuries.

3. Construction engineers’ role on the building site.

4. Construction engineers’ skills.

7.3Прочитай и письменно переведи текстBUILDING:

In architecture, construction, engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following: any man-made structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or an act of construction. Buildings come in a wide amount of shapes and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons. Buildings serve several needs of society — primarily as shelter from weather and as general living space, to provide privacy, to store belongings and to live and work.

Residential buildings are called houses/homes, though buildings containing large numbers of separate dwelling units are often called apartment buildings/blocks to differentiate them from the more “individual” house. Building types may range from one-room woodframed, masonry, or adobe dwellings to multi-million dollar high- rise buildings able to house thousands of people.

Increasing settlement density in buildings and closer distances between buildings is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar attractors. A multistoreyed building is a building that has multiple floors above ground in the building. Multi-storey buildings aim to increase the area of the building without increasing the area of the land the building is built on, hence saving land and, in most cases, money.

7.4 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What does building refer to?

2. What needs do buildings serve?

3. What types of buildings are mentioned in the text?

4. What is the reason for high ground prices?

5. What are the advantages of multi-storeyed buildings?

7.5 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст SKYSCRAPERS:

A building many storeys high was first called a skyscraper in the 1880s in the United States. They were developed in the last part of the 19th century as a result of technological advancement and the social conditions at that time. They are now often referred to as high-rise buildings. The city of New York set the skyscraper pattern. Because the ground beneath the city streets is rock, it is solid enough to take the heaviest loads without subsiding as softer earth would do, and therefore it is well suited to bearing the weight of tall buildings.

Architects and civil engineers all over the United States were experimenting, especially with steel which was much lighter than iron. These tall buildings were required so that millions of people might be able to live and work in a comparatively small area. If skyscrapers are built the population of a whole town can live on quite a small plot of land. This is useful where land is expensive.

Skyscrapers have certain disadvantages. If they are built in a street of ordinary width, where the people who work in them come pouring out at the end of the day, the street will be overcrowded. Moreover, a skyscraper throws a long shadow, thereby keeping the sun from a great many people at certain hours. Two skyscrapers built near one another would be apt to trap the fumes of petrol in the space between them. To overcome these difficulties a scheme called zoning was introduced in the United States in the 1930s, whereby skyscrapers had to be set a certain distance from other buildings, depending on their height. Modern skyscrapers are usually built with open spaces, pedestrian precincts, or shopping centres at street levels to make the surroundings more attractive.

7.6 Определи верны или нет высказывания:

1. Skyscrapers were developed in the 20th century as a result of technological advancement.

2. The ground beneath the city of New York is not solid enough to bear the weight of skyscrapers.

3. American architects were experimenting with steel rather than iron.

4. High-rise buildings were required for those people who wanted to live and work in a big area.

5. Skyscrapers are useful where land is not cheap.

6. The streets in which skyscrapers are built may be overcrowded at the end of the day.

7. High-rise buildings do not have any disadvantages.

8. Skyscrapers can hardly make the surroundings attractive.

7.7Прочитай и письменно переведи текстROMAN CONCRETE:

During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete was made from quicklime, pozzolana, and an aggregate of pumice. Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was in effect a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains which trouble the builders of similar structures in stone or brick.

Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension.

The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures has ensured that many survive to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example of the longevity of concrete, which allowed the Romans to build this and similar structures across the Roman Empire. Many Roman aqueducts and Roman bridges have masonry cladding to a concrete core, a technique they used in structures such as the Pantheon, the dome of which is concrete.

The secret of concrete was lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. Portland cement was first used in concrete in the early 1840s.

7.8 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What components was Roman concrete made from?

2. Why was concrete regarded as a revolutionary material?

3. What is the difference between Roman concrete and modern structural concrete?

4. Why have many Roman structures survived to the present day?

5. What technique did the Romans use in their structures?

6. When was the secret of Roman concrete lost?

7. Who pioneered the re-use of concrete?

8. What aggregates are used in modem concrete?

7.9Прочитай и письменно переведи текстFROM THE HISTORY OF BRICKMAKING:

Bricks were first used for building in the Middle East. More than 6,000 years ago the Sumerian people living in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers discovered that the muddy clay deposited by the two rivers was ideal for building. The clay was mixed with water and straw and pressed into rectangular moulds. The bricks were then turned out of the moulds and left to dry in the sun. Sun-dried bricks such as these, known as abode after the clay from which they are made, are still used for building in warm, dry regions throughout Africa and South America. Adobe is cheap and can last for centuries.

The next development in the history of brickmaking came around 4,000 years ago when the brick kiln was invented in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. Brickmakers found that if bricks were fired after they had been dried in the sun, they were harder and better able to withstand damp. The earliest type of kiln was a beehiveshaped mound of dried bricks with arches at the bottom in which the fires could be lit. Later kilns were permanent buildings in which the bricks were slowly heated up and allowed to cool over a period of four days.

From the Middle East, the ancient craft of brickmaking spread v/estward to Egypt and the Mediterranean and eastward to India and China. Roman builders brought bricks to Britain in the 1st century AD, but when the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century, the art of brickmaking was lost for some 600 years. It was revived by the Italians in the 11th century and spread quickly throughout northern Europe. By the mid-17th century brick-built walls were replacing the old timber frameworks in buildings.

7.10Заполни таблицу периодов развития кирпичной промышленности:

7.11 Прочитай, переведи текст WINDY CITY WONDER и расположи абзацы в правильной последовательности:

1. Non-linear analysis predicted the short and long term displacement of Chicago’s Trump Tower, which included the effects of creep and shrinkage. If no horizontal correction had been made during construction, the roof could have moved 300 mm out of line due to the combined effects of gravity, creep and shrinkage.

2. Any massive building needs massive foundations. The building sits on 30 m long piles founded on bedrock. A permanent steel liner, which seals the excavation, cuts through 18 m of stiff clay and 12 m of boulders and fractured rock to form a socket in solid rock. On completion the Tramp Tower will hold the record for the world’s highest residential building, but only for a year. After that it will be dwarfed by the 610 m, 150 storey Chicago Spire.

3. Clever engineering has meant that North America’s tallest residential building will be solid as a rock despite its windy location.

4. A 3 m deep piled raft was poured continuously over a period of 22 hours. The concrete was poured using conveyor belts so that very few vibrators were needed; the temperature had to be carefully controlled as the concrete cured due to the raft thickness. If the differential temperature across the depth was too large, stresses would set up and lead to micro cracking.

5. Nestled among the forest of skyscrapers on the Chicago skyline, the 92 storey Trump Tower is currently notching its way up to become the city’s second tallest building. The 415 m tower will be completed in January 2009. The stepped concrete building has been designed to reflect the height of nearby buildings by architect and engineer for the project Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM). The first step aligns with the 130 m high Wrigley Building, the second the 179 m high Marina City Towers, and the third the 212 m high IBM Plaza, known as 330 North Wabash.

Finite element analysis.

6. The outrigger beams take up a storey height and are heavily reinforced. In some areas conventional bars are even replaced by an equivalent area of steel plate to ease congestion. Contractor Bovis Lend Lease is using self compacting concrete to penetrate densely reinforced areas. Surprisingly, the tall building does not require dampers to limit its movement. This is because of the stabilising effect of the heavy concrete core and columns and the setbacks. The asymmetric setbacks change the cross section of the building, so changing the frequency of wind passing it. This means that vortices, which would cause the building to move more, cannot build up.

7. As important as these steps — also known as setbacks — are architecturally, they also have an important engineering role as they each contain an outrigger stability system. These 5.3 m deep by 1.7 m wide concrete monoliths transfer lateral loads between the perimeter columns and the central core. SOM associate partner Robert Sinn explains that the lateral shear resistance of the core and overturning resistance of the perimeter structure are mobilised by linking them at discrete levels using outrigger trusses or beams. He adds that this means just a few heavier vertical elements are needed on the perimeter to keep the building stable, freeing up the facade.

Foundations.

8. Engineers had to deal with the inherent problem of the uneven load distribution of a massive, asymmetrical building and its tendency to move sideways under its own weight. The solution was to carry out a time-based finite element analysis on the structure so that movements could be predicted and compensated for during construction. Bovis Lend Lease used these results to make millimetre adjustments at every storey to bring the building back to plumb.

New Civil Engineer International, October, 2007

Множественное число существительных, кроме тех, основа которых оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x, a также существительных, имеющих окончание -о, об­разуется путем прибавления к основе окончания -s: a boy — boys, a book — books, a pen — pens, a girl — girls.

Множественное число существительных, основа ко­торых оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x, а также имеющих окончание -о, образуется путем прибавле­ния окончания -es:

a bench скамейка — benches, a bus автобус — buses, a glass стакан — glasses, a box коробка — boxes, a potato картошка — potatoes.

Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после согласной) во множественном числе имеют окончание -ies:

a baby младенец — babies, a fly муха — flies, a lady леди— ladies.

Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после глас­ной) во множественном числе имеют окончание -s: a boy — boys a toy — toys

Если слово оканчивается на f (-fe), то во множе­ственном числе f меняется на v и добавляется -(es): a life жизнь — lives, a knife нож — knives, a shelf полка — shelves, a wife жена — wives (исключение: roof крыша — roofs).

Как читаются окончания существительных во множественном числе?

-s читается как [s] после глухих согласных: books, cats -s читается как [z] после звонких согласных и глас­ных: pens, boys;

-es читается как [iz] после s, ss, sh, ch, x, z: boxes, у после согласных переходит в i+es: city — cities, lady — ladies.

Ряд существительных образует множественное чис­ло не по общим правилам:

а) изменяется корневая гласная: a man мужчина — теп мужчины, a woman женщина — women женщины, a foot нога — feet ноги, a tooth зуб — teeth зубы, a goose гусь — geese гуси, a mouse мышь — mice мыши;

б) добавляется окончание -en: an ох бык — oxen быки, a child ребенок — children дети;

в) заимствуются формы единственного и множествен­ного числа из латинского и греческого языков:

a formula — formulae (formulas), a crisis — crises, a criterion — criteria, an index —indices, a bacterium — bacteria.

В английском языке есть существительные, кото­рые имеют одну (общую) форму для единственного и множественного числа:

a deer олень — deer олени, a sheep овца — sheep овцы, a fish рыба — fish рыбы, a swine свинья — swine свиньи.

Некоторые существительные могут употребляться в форме либо только единственного, либо множествен­ного числа.

Употребляются только в единственном числе:

money — деньги, sugar — сахар, hair — волосы, business — дело, information — информация, сведения fruit — фрукты progress — прогресс, успехи news — новость, новости, peace — мир love — любовь knowledge — знание, знания advice — советы furniture — мебель luggage — багаж

Только во множественном числе употребляются слова:

clothes — одежда, goods — товары, riches — богатства, thanks — благодарности, manners — манеры, money — деньги

Только во множественном числе употребляются названия предметов, состоящих из двух и более частей:

trousers — брюки glasses — очки scissors — ножницы shorts — шорты pliers — плоскогубцы.

7.A Выбери правильный вариант, обращая внимание на исчисляемые и неисчисляе­мые существительные:

1. I’m going to buy new sunglass / sunglasses.

2. He’s going to buy some new trouser / trousers.

3. They are going to buy some new furniture / furni­tures.

4. His hair / hairs is fair.

5. He’s got much information / informations about his travel.

6. They gave us some advice / advices.

7.B Напиши следующие существи­тельные во множественном числе:

Box, sheep, place, library, photo, mouse, lady, glasses, bush, dress, country, bus, party, wife, day, knife, knowledge, month, pen, hero, goose, company, life, deer, tomato, city, man, play, news, child, fruit, shelf, leaf, foot, fish, woman, money, information.

7.C Поставь существительные в сле­дующих предложениях во множественное число (об­рати внимание на изменения в указательных мес­тоимениях):

1. A new house is in our street.

2. This story is very interesting.

3. A woman, a man, a boy and a girl are in the room.

4. Put this knife on that table.

5. What is your name?

6. He keeps his toy in a box.

7. This man works at our office.

8. He has a new suit.

9. The plate was on the table.

10. This town is very large.

11. Is that girl your sister?

12. I’ll give you my book.

13. This story is good.

14. Is this a good match?

15. The student put his book on the desk.

16. That house is new.

17. Is this a good student?

8.1 Сопоставь антонимы:

8.2 Составь предложения, используя существительные из одной колонки и выражения из второй:

1. Mortar

2. Bricks

3. Steel

4. Clay

5. The boards

6. Reinforced concrete

7. Clay

8. A moulding

9. The brickwork strength

10. A binder

A. were put down as a floor.

B. depends on the material quality.

C. is strengthened by bars.

D. is used to form clay bricks.

E. has high tensile strength.

F. is used in adhesive applications.

G. was pressed into steel moulds.

H. acts as a cementing material.

I. are put together to form a wall

J. is plastic.

8.3 Замени выделенные слова на:

a) process b) timber c) due to d) bend e) apart from f) aggregate g) produce h) board i) lasting j) concerning

1. Thanks to this project, small companies can manufacture affordable building materials locally, using their own resources. 2. We have a problem with the air temperature in this room. It is too cold. This is because of inadequate thermal insulation. 3. They encouraged the research activities on approaches and methods with regard to building materials and construction technology. 4. The properties of concrete are directly related to those of its constituents. 5. That was a new method to treat cement-based building materials hydrothermally. 6. Reinforced concrete comes cheap and will support structures for a long amount of time, but it is considered to be less strong and durable than brick buildings. 7. Various building materials and auxiliary building materials can be manufactured from waste glass in an environmentally sound way. Except for light-weight concrete and plaster these are, above all, glass wool mats for purposes of sound and heat insulation. 8. Modem western style home is often built with lumber frames and fitted with bricks. 9. Wood is used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber, such as planks. 10. They are studying an elastic bend of a beam under load.

8.4 Прочитай, письменно переведи текст Materials Used in Building и ответь на вопросы:

1. What naturally occurring and man-made building materials do you know?

2. What areas is the use of building materials usually segmented into?

3. What is the longest lasting building material?

4. What is specific of wood used in construction?

5. What types of bricks do you know? What are the advantages of bricks?

6. What materials are bricks made from?

7. Why is concrete the predominant building material in this modem age?

8. What materials is concrete made from?

9. What type of buildings is metal used for?

10. What did glass as a building material provide people with?

11. What do you know about the use of plastics for construction purposes?

12. What insulation materials are used in buildings?

13. Are there any environmental problems of using and producing building materials?

Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The use of building materials is typically segmented into specific trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work.

Building materials can be categorized into two sources, natural and synthetic. Natural building materials are those that are unprocessed or minimally processed by industry (lumber or glass). Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after human manipulations (plastics and paints).

Rock is the longest lasting building material available. It is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too. Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now.

Wood is a product of trees and sometimes other fibrous plants used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards or planks. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically.

A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale. Clay bricks are formed in a mould, or in commercialmanufacture more frequently by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper size. Bricks have been used as a building material since the 1700s. This was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant than wood, and cheap to produce. Cinder blocks replaced clay bricks in the late 20th century. They are made mostly with concrete.

Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a binder. After mixing, the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. This is the material referred to by the term concrete. For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a low tensile strength, it is strengthened using steel rods or bars. This strengthened concrete is called reinforced concrete. Concrete has been the predominant building material in this modem age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport.

Metal is used as stmctural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal stmctural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if treated well lasts a long time.

Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass which is very brittle is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates in a very hot fire stove called a kiln. Additives are very often added to the mixture when making to produce glass with different colours or characteristics.

The term plastics covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymerization products. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today.

More recently synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used on a limited scale. It is light weight, easily shaped and an excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement.

Nowadays the production of raw materials for building purposes is on a world wide scale. Environmental concerns are also becoming a major world topic concerning the availability of certain materials, and the extraction of such large quantities needed for the human habitat.

8.5 Ответь на вопросы:

1. so it gives a lot of protection too.

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