Look through the text concentrating on the beginning and the end of each paragraph, and write an outline, either in Russian or in English (time limit — 10 min.).
1. It can be said that science is a cumulative body of knowledge about the natural world, obtained by the application of a peculiar method practiced by the scientist. It is known that the word science itself is derived from the Latin "scire", to know, to have knowledge of, to experience. Fundamental and applied sciences are commonly distinguished, the former being concerned with fundamental laws of nature, the latter engaged in application of the knowledge obtained. Technology is the fruit of applied science, being the concrete practical expression of research done in the laboratory and applied to manufacturing commodities to meet human needs.
2. The word "scientist" was introduced only in 1840 by a Cambridge professor of philosophy who wrote: "We need a name for describing a cultivator of science in general. I should be inclined to call him a scientist". "The cultivators of science" before that time were known as "natural philosophers". They were curious, often eccentric, persons who poked inquiring fingers at nature. In the process of doing so they started a technique of inquiry which is now referred to as the "scientific method".
3. Briefly, the following steps can be distinguished in this method. First comes the thought that initiates the inquiry. It is known, for example, that in 1896 the physicist Henri Becquerel, in his communication to the French Academy of Sciences, reported that he had discovered rays of an unknown nature emitted spontaneously by uranium salts. His discovery excited Marie Curie, and together with her husband Pierre Curie she tried to obtain more knowledge about the radiation. What was it exactly? Where did it come from?
4. Second comes the collecting of facts: the techniques of doing this will differ according to the problem which is to be solved. But it is based on the experiment in which anything may be used to gather the essential data — from a test-tube to an earth-satellite. It is known that the Curies encountered great difficulties in gathering their facts, as they investigated the mysterious uranium rays.
5. This leads to step three: organizing the facts and studying the relationships that emerge. It was already noted that the above rays were different from anything known. How to explain this? Did this radiation come from the atom itself? It might be expected that other materials also have the property of emitting radiation. Some investigations made by Mme Curie proved that this was so. The discovery was followed by further experiments with "active" radio elements only.
6. Step four consists in stating a hypothesis or theory: that is, framing a general truth that has emerged, and that may be modified as new acts emerge. In July 1898, the Curies announced the probable presence in pitchblende ores of a new element possessing powerful radioactivity. This was the beginning of the discovery of radium.
7. Then follows the clearer statement of the theory. In December 1898, the Curies reported to the Academy of Sciences: "The various reasons enumerated lead us to believe that the new radioactive substance contains a new element to which we propose to give the name of Radium. The new radioactive substance certainly contains a great amount of barium, and still its radioactivity is considerable. It can be suggested therefore that the radioactivity of radium must be enormous".
8. And the final step is the practical test of the theory, i. e. the prediction of new facts. This is essential, because from this flows the possibility of control by man of the forces of nature that are newly revealed.
9. Note should be taken of how Marie Curie used deductive reasoning in order to proceed with her research, this kind of "detective work" being basic to the methodology of science. It should be stressed further that she dealt with probability — and not with certainty — in her investigation. Also, although the Curies were doing the basic research work at great expense to themselves in hard physical toil, they knew that they were part of an international group of people all concerned with their search for truth. Their reports were published and immediately examined by scientists all over the world. Any defects in their arguments would be pointed out to them immediately.
Paragraph Study.
Read paragraph 1.
1. Follow the dominant noun and the words related to it in meaning through the paragraph and state the main idea. 2. Give Russian equivalents of: a cumulative body of knowledge, a peculiar method practiced by the scientist, manufacturing commodities to meet human needs.
Read paragraph 2.
1. Follow the dominant noun and its equivalents through the paragraph. Identify the sentence which repeats the idea expressed in the first sentence of the text. 2. Identify the words used by the author as equivalent to: направляли свой пытливый ум на. . . 3. Identify the words used by the author as equivalent to doing so, a technique of inquiry.
Read paragraph 3.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Among the latter identify the dominant noun and follow it through its transformations into its equivalents and pronouns. 2. Give a Russian equivalent of initiates.
Read paragraph 4.
1. Identify the topic sentence. Follow the words the collecting of facts through their transformations into their equivalents and pronouns. 2. Identify the words equivalent to: столкнуться с трудностями, пробирка, в зависимости от проблемы.
Read paragraph 5.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find the sentence describing the first step on the way to a hypothesis (What modal verb is used to show that it is only the first step?). 2. Identify the words used by the author as equivalent to this was so. 3. Give a Russian equivalent of emerge. Translate the last sentence of the paragraph into Russian.
Read paragraph 6.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find the sentence describing the next step in the development of the hypothesis (What word shows that it is a hypothesis?). State the function of that word and give its Russian equivalent. 2. Translate the first sentence into Russian.
Read paragraphs 7 and 8.
1. Identify the topic sentence and the illustrating sentences. Find the sentence describing the final step in the development of the hypothesis. 2. Find the guide words to the author's thought equivalent to: несомненно, несмотря на это, на этом основании. 3. Try to explain the author's choice of the modal verbs. 4. Find the English equivalent of i. e. in paragraph 6.
Read paragraph 9.
I. State the role of deductive reasoning in science. Indicate the words characterizing the conditions under which the Curies worked. 2. Translate paragraph 9 into Russian.