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ВАРИАНТ 17.
1. Прочитайте е переведите текст:
Text. Microeconomics
The word «micro» means small, and microeconomics means economics in the small. The optimizing behaviorof individual units such as households and firms provides the foundation for microeconomics. Microeconomists may investigateindividual markets or even the economy as a whole, but their analyses are derived from the aggregation of the behavior of individual units. Microeconomic theory is used extensively in many areas of applied economics.For example, it is used in industrial organization, labor economics, international trade, cost-benefit analysis, and many other economic subfields. The tools and analyses of microeconomics provide a common ground, and even a language, for economists interested in a wide range of problems.
At one time there was a sharp distinctionin both methodology and subject matterbetween microeconomics and macroeconomics.
The methodological distinction became somewhat blurredduring the 1970s as more and more macroeconomic analyses were built upon microeconomic foundations. Nonetheless, major distinctions remainbetween the two major branches of economics. For example, the microeconomist is interested in the determination of individual prices and relative prices (i.e., exchange ratiosbetween goods), whereas the macroeconomist is interested more in the general price level and its change over time.
Optimizationplays a key role in microeconomics. The consumer is assumed to maximize utilityor satisfactionsubject to the constraintsimposed by income or income earning power. The producer is assumed to maximize profit or minimize cost subject to the technological constraints under which the firm operates. Optimization of social welfare sometimes isthe criterion for the determination of public policy.
Opportunity costis an important concept in microeconomics. Many courses of action are valued in terms of what is sacrificedso that they might be undertaken.For example, the opportunity cost of a public project is the value of the additional goods that the private sector would have produced with the resources used for the public project.
Theory of the Consumer
The individual consumeror household is assumed to possess a utility functionwhich specifies the satisfaction which is gained from the consumption ofalternative bundles of goods. The consumer's income or income-earning power determines which bundles are available to the consumer. The consumer then selects a bundle that gives the highest possible level of utility. With few exceptions, the consumer is treated asa price taker—that is, the consumer is freeto choose whatever quantities income allowsbut hasno influenceover prevailing market prices. In order to maximizeutility the consumer purchases goodsso that the subjective rate of substitution for eachpair of goods as indicated by the consumer's utility function equals the objective rate of substitution given by the ratio of their market prices.
This basic utility-maximization analysis has been modified and expanded in many different ways.
Theory of the Producer
The individual producer or firm is assumed to possess a production function, which specifies the quantity of-output produced as a function of the quantities of the inputs used in production. The producer's revenueequals the quantity of output produced and sold times its price, and the cost to the producer equals the sum of the quantities of inputs purchased and used times their prices. Profit is the difference between revenue and cost. The producer is assumed to maximize profits subject to the technology given by the production function. Profit maximization requires that the producer use each factor to a point at which its marginal contribution to revenue equals its marginal contribution to cost.
Under pure competition,the producer is a price taker who may sell at the going market price whatever has been produced. Under monopoly (one seller) the producer recognizes that price declines as sales are expanded, and under monopsony (one buyer) the producer recognizes that the price paid for an input increases as purchases are increased.
A producer's cost function gives production cost as a function of output level on the assumption that the producer combines inputs to minimize production cost. Profit maximization using revenue and cost functions requires that the producer equatethe decrement in revenue from producing one less unit (called marginal revenue) to the corresponding decrement in cost (called marginal cost). Under pure competition, marginal revenue equals price. Consequently, the producer equates marginal cost of production to the going market price.
2. Переведите на русский язык следующие английские словосочетания:
1. labour economics;
2. cost-benefit analysis;
3. sharp distinction in both methodology and subject matter;
4. subjective rate of substitution;
5. behaviour of individual units;
6. investigate markets;
7. the aggregation of the behaviour;
8. the consumption of alternative bundles of goods;
9. price taker;
10. prevail market prices.
3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:
1.функция полезности;
2. ставка обмена;
3. альтернативные издержки;
4.играть ключевую роль;
5. социальное благосостояние;
6. технологические ограничения;
7. стоимость дополнительных товаров;
8. доход покупателя;
9. рыночные цены;
10. минимизировать прибыль.
4. Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:
1. contribute;
2. produce;
3. house;
4. economy;
5. nation;
6. distinct;
7. relate;
8. determine;
9. consume;
10. subject.
5. Задайте к предложению все типы вопросов: общий,