Principles and Applications

Chris Park,Lancaster University, UK

The second edition of this fully integrated introductory text for courses in environmental studies and physical geography builds on the resounding success of the first edition, providing a comprehensive account of modern environmental issues and the physical and socio-economic framework in which they are set. It explains the principles and applications of the different parts of the Earth’s system: the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and the biosphere, and explains the interrelationships within and between these systems. It explores the present environmental crisis, examines how the planet Earth fits into the wider universe and explores human-environment interactions.

New features of the second edition include:

● two entirely new chapters on ‘population’ and ‘back to the future’;

● updated case-studies and examples bring completely fresh perspectives to recent environmental events and issues;

● new boxes introduce emerging approaches, techniques or perspectives;

● additional student-friendly textbook features include learning outcomes and end-of-chapter summaries and a glossary of key terms;

● new colour and black and white plates;

● updated annotated reading;

● web links to sites illustrating themes and material covered in the book;

● an associated website structured by chapter with a complete bibliography and links to imagery and an updated lecturer’s manual.

Contents: Part 1: Introduction1: Environment in crisis; 2: Population and environment; 3: Environmental systems; 4: Spaceship Earth; Part 2: The lithosphere5: Structure of the Earth; 6: Dynamic Earth; 7: Earth materials Part 3: The atmosphere8: The atmosphere; 9: Atmospheric processes; 10: Weather systems; 11: Climate Part 4: The hydrosphere12: The hydrological cycle; 13: Water resources; 14: Drylands; 15: Cold and ice; 16: Oceans and coasts Part 5: The biosphere1 7: The biosphere; 18: Ecosystems, succession and biomes; 19: Soil; Part 6: Reflections20: Retrospect and prospect.

11.Fundamentals of Soils

John Gerrard,University of Birmingham, UK

“Fundamentals of Soils” provides a comprehensive and engaging introduction to soils and the workings of soil systems. This text is the only one of its kind to provide an attractive, lively and accessible introduction to this topic. Featuring learning tools within each chapter, such as summaries, essay questions and guides for further reading, the text is also highly illustrated with useful tables, boxes and figures. Covering all key areas of study at an introductory level, subjects covered include:

● soil properties ● soil classification

● soil processes ● world soils

● controls on soil formation ● soil patterns •soil degradation.

12.Environmental Physics

Clare Smith,freelance Environmental Consultant

“Environmental Physics” is a comprehensive introduction to the physical concepts

underlying environmental science. The importance and relevance of physics is emphasised by its application to real environmental problems with a wide range of case studies. Applications included cover energy use and production, global climate, the physics of living things, radioactivity, environmental remote sensing, noise pollution and the physics of the Earth. The book makes the subject accessible to those with little physics background, keeping mathematical treatment straightforward. The text is lively and informative, and is supplemented by numerous illustrations, photos, tables of useful data, and a glossary of key terms.

13. GIS EnvironmentalModelling and Engineering

Allan Brimicombe,University of East London, UK

Over the past decade environmental modelling (EM) has become increasingly seen to be significant, and is now seen as an important application of GIS. Both public and private sectors are now concerned about the environment, and widely recognise the need to assess and prevent potential impacts.

EM is really a spatial activity, and GIS is a well suited tool for it, but there are a number of problems:

● EM needs to consider space-time processes, often in 3 or 4 dimensions, but GIS is largely 2-D and static.

● Where EM is a form of simulation modelling (as distinct from cartographic modelling) there is the issue of EM-GIS configuration, which can take the form of loose coupling or full integration.

● Spatial data quality can have serious consequences for the outcomes of both GIS and EM because errors propagate.

● Model specification within EM, and data handling and analysis within GIS can also seriously affect outcomes.

● Decision-making needs to be made under a degree of uncertainty.

Students need to be made aware of these issues and most practitioners ought to enrich their knowledge and skills in these areas. This book focuses on modelling, rather than on data collection or visualisation and encourages users of GIS and EM to be more critical where it matters.

APPENDIX IV SUMMARIES

1.SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS

IN MODERN SOCIETY

Natural science is the main characteristic feature distinguishing the present civilization from the other civilizations in the past. From its early beginnings in the sixteenth century, the developments of science have influenced the course of western civilization more and more until today it plays a most dominant role. It is not much of an exaggeration to say that we live in a world that, materially and intellectually, has been created by science.

This point is easy to illustrate on the material level. One merely needs to mention the telephone, the radio, the television, the automobile, and the airplane, or any of the countless devices invented by the application of science. There is hardly an article used in the homes, in the places of work, or in the places of enjoyment that has not been modified by technology based on science; the means of communication that bind the continents into a single community depend on scientific know-how, without modern sanitation it would be impossible to have large centres of population; without modern industry and agriculture it would be impossible to feed, to clothe, and to provide the “abundant life” to this large population. There is, however, another part of the story less obvious and less well known, but fur more important. It is a story of expanding intellectual horizons – the impact of science on the mind of a man. Fundamentally, science is an intellectual enterprise, an attempt to understand the world in a particular way. All the developments mentioned above are but the results, the outcomes of this intellectual activity. Over the past 150 years the range of human knowledge has been doubled every twelve to fifteen years. In 1930 man knew four times as much as he did in 1900; by 1960 his knowledge had grown sixteenfold, and by the year 2000 it was expected to be a hundred times what it had been a century previously. The second part of the twentieth century brought a number of technical innovations, which are still very young but which are taken so much for granted that it is as if they have always existed. In the fifties of the running century hardly anyone would probably have believed that we should be able to sit at home and watch astronauts walking in space or that people could be kept alive by the heart of a dead man. The transistor was not invented until 1948. This piece of electronic equipment found wide use in space technology, computers, transistor radios, medical instruments, television sets-in fact, wherever precise control and modulation of electrical signals was required. It seemed absurd to suppose that it could ever be replaced, however, the invention of ICs (integrated circuits) in 1958 brought in a new era of change in the field so fundamental, that it already has the characteristics of a second industrial revolution. A mere twelve years separated the launching of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 in 1957 and man’s first landing on the Moon in 1969. The first long-term orbital station Salyut launched in 1971 opened a new era in space research, providing the possibility of conducting investigations in the field of astrophysics, space technology, medicine, biology, etc. under conditions inconceivable on the earth. Another period often years and in 1981 we could witness the launching of a typically new cosmic vehicle – the Shuttle. It is not difficult to continue with other examples but the point is clear. Events such as these are characteristic of the rate of technological development in the second half of the 20th century. “They suggest that the technological innovations we are to experience during the next twenty years to come may well suipass our wildest fantasies and today’s tomorrow may well become tomorrow’s the day before yesterday. Science occupies a central position in modern society. It dominates man’s whole existence. Research and innovations in technology should improve society’s living and working conditions and remedy the negative effects of technical and social changes”. Recent developments of nuclear weapons, satellites, space platforms and intercontinental ballistic missiles have attracted, and rightly so, public attention throughout the world. “They make wars of annihilation possible and forcibly thrust upon us the necessity of coming to an understanding with the other nations. It is not merely a matter of peace, but, rather, poses the question of the very survival of the human race”.

Summary

Natural science is the main characteristic feature of the present civilization. Science and technology have modified our homes, places of work and enjoyment, means of communications. Science expands man’s intellectual horizons. The range of human knowledge doubles every twelve years. The second half of the twentieth century brought a number of technical innovations – transistor, ICs. satellites, etc. Recent developments of nuclear weapons make wars of annihilation possible and pose the question of the survival of the human race.

2. WHAT HAPPENS TO A RIVER AS IT APPROACHES ITS MOUTH?

The flat area of land over which a river meanders is called a flood plain. During times of flood, a river will overflow its banks and cover any surrounding flat land. As the speed at which the water flows across the flood plain is less than in the main channel, then the fine material transported in suspension by the river will be deposited. Each time a river floods a thin layer of silt, or alluvium, is spread over the flood plain. The Egyptians used to rely upon the annual flooding by the River Nile to water their crops and to add silt to their fields until the opening of the Aswan Dam in 1970.

When a river floods, it is the coarsest material which will be deposited first. This coarse material can form small embankments alongside a river which the Americans call levees. Large rivers, like the Mississippi, carry tremendous quantities of material in suspension, especially in times of flood.

However, during times when the river level falls and its speed is reduced, large amounts of silt will fall out of suspension onto the bed of the river. In time the bed of the river will build up so that, when water levels are high again, the river is more likely to overflow its banks. To try to prevent this happening, large artificial levees are built. The Mississippi now flows at a much higher level than the surrounding flood plain, and cities like New Orleans and St Louis are protected by levees that are up to 16 metres high. The problem is, what happens should these levees break?

Large rivers transport great amounts of fine material down to their mouths. If a river flows into a relatively calm sea, or lake, then its speed will reduce and the fine material will be deposited. The deposited material will slowly build upwards and outwards to form a delta. River deltas provide some of the best soils in the world for farming (e.g. River Nile) but they are also prone to serious flooding as the land is so flat (e.g. Bangladesh). The Mississippi delta is extending rapidly into the Gulf of Mexico. As in all deltas, deposition blocks the main channel of the river so the Mississippi has to divide into a series of smaller channels called distributaries.These channels need constant dredging if they are to be used by ships.

Summary

By the time a large river approaches a lake or the sea it will be carrying large amounts of material. Some of this material may be spread over the flood plain during times of flood, or it may form a delta at the river mouth.

David Waugh. Key Geography for GCSE. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes (Publishers), 1995.

3. WHERE DO MOST PEOPLE IN BRITAIN LIVE?

Map A shows the population distributionof Britain; it shows where most people in Britain live. It is obvious that people are not distributed evenly across the country. Some places are very crowded while others have very few inhabitants. The map uses population densityto show how crowded different places are. Population density is the number of people living in a given area and is usually given as the number of people per square kilometre. Population density is found by dividing the total population of an area by the size of the area where they live. For example:

Population of the UK 57 237 000

Area of the UK (sq km) 244 880 = 234 per square kilometre

Places that are crowded are described as densely populatedand have a high population density. Places that have few people living there are described as sparsely populatedand have a low population density.

When looking at population maps which show either distributions or densities, a geographer has to try to observe any notable patterns. Map A shows two patterns:

1. Areas with the highest densities appear to be in the south and east while those places with the lowest densities are more to the north and west.

2. The highest densities are in large urban areas and the lowest densities in ruralareas.

Population density maps are simplified to show general patterns. As a result they cannot show local variations.

● In urban areas, population density tendstobe higher in older inner city areas, rather than towards the edge of cities.

● In rural areas population density tends to be higher in larger market towns rather than places with dispersed farms.

Summary

The distribution of population is not even throughout Britain. Population densities are highest in the south and east and in urban areas, and lowest in the north and west and in rural areas.

David Waugh. Key Geography for GCSE. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes (Publishers), 1995.

4.WHAT AFFECTS THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF

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