Admission to Higher Education
Admission to an institution of higher education requires the Upper Secondary School Certificate of Graduation (Kotogakko Sotsugyo Shosho) and, in most cases, is based on competitive examinations.
Entrance to public universities is based on two entrance examinations: the highly competitive National Center for University Entrance Examination, which is administered throughout Japan over a two-day period each year, and examinations administered by the individual universities at which the student wishes to enroll. The most prestigious national universities have such high applicant volumes that the national test is often used as a screening device for qualification into their own admission tests. Ministry policies require that universities also consider other factors such as school reports and interviews, but by far the greatest weight is placed on the examinations.
Given the great lifelong advantage traditionally enjoyed by those who graduate from a top university, the stakes and pressure associated with the admissions and examination process are very high. Many students who fail to gain admission to their preferred institution try again the following year and commonly devote themselves full time to the preparation process at private schools known as yobiku. Such students are commonly referred to as ronin, or masterless samurai. The ronin experience is so common in Japan that the Japanese education system is often said to have an extra year built into it.
Private universities can also use the national examinations for admission purposes, however most choose to set and grade their own examinations, and students often sit for at least one of these in case they fail to gain admission to their desired national institution. Private schools charge fees for these examinations, which make up a not insignificant portion of their operating budgets.
In 2003, 72.9 percent of upper-secondary graduates (including those retaking the university entrance examination) enrolled at an institution of higher education of some description. Forty-nine percent enrolled at either a junior college or a university.
UNIVERSITY HIGHER EDUCATION
Programs and Degrees
Stage I: The Gakushi Shogo ( Bachelor’s Degree) requires four years of full-time study in all fields that it is offered, including the humanities, social sciences, sciences and more professionally oriented disciplines such as engineering and agriculture. First degrees in medicine (Igakushi-go), dentistry (Shigakushi-go) and veterinary science (Juigakushi-go) require six years of full-time study. Holders of these qualifications are often referred to, in English, as Master of Medicine and Master of Dentistry, and the holder may be admitted directly to a doctoral program.
All bachelor’s degree programs require the completion of a general education component comprising approximately 60 credits taken in the first two years of the program. Courses in humanities, social sciences, natural sciences generally count for 36 credits. The remaining general education credits are usually earned in subjects more closely associated with the subject of specialization, and a minimum of eight credits in foreign languages and four in physical education. Courses in the student’s major comprise a minimum of 76 credits, the majority of which are taken in the third and fourth years of the program. Most undergraduate courses are worth four credits. Students are required to earn a minimum of 124 credits to graduate, although some faculties require as much as 160.
Stage II: The Shushi-go (Master’s Degree) requires two years of full-time study and a maximum of four years part-time study. It is offered in a majority of subject areas and is conducted by coursework, thesis and oral examination. A minimum of 30 units of coursework must usually be completed. Admission is based on the bachelor’s degree or sixteen years of school and higher education in another country, plus a competitive written and oral examination administered by individual universities. Sixty percent of graduate programs are offered at Japan’s 87 national universities.
Legal education and the judicial system as a whole is currently undergoing comprehensive reform. Based on the 2001 recommendations of the Justice System Reform Council, 68 graduate-level professional law schools were inaugurated in April 2004 to educate and train future lawyers. Central to the reform is the desire to increase the number of lawyers and increase the level of their general and specific education. In 2006, these new law schools will award J.D. degrees to the first graduating class. Standard programs require three years of instruction, although those with prior professional experience are able to complete the program in two years. The J.D. degree will be the basic requirement for taking the new National Law Examination.
Stage III: The Hakushi-go (Doctorate) normally requires three years of study following the master’s degree, or five years following a bachelor’s degree. The program generally includes a coursework component, the submission of a doctoral dissertation and an oral defense. This structured doctoral program is known as katei hatase. Less common is the dissertation doctorate, known as ronbun hakase, which requires the submission and defense of a research dissertation.
WES GRADE CONVERSION GUIDE Scale U.S. Grade Equivalency
80-100 A
70-79 B
60-69 C
0-59 F
NON-UNIVERSITY HIGHER EDUCATION
The technical and vocational sector is serviced mainly by junior colleges (tanki daigaku). Tertiary-level training is also available through colleges of technology (koto senmon gakko), specialized training colleges (senshu gakko), vocational training centers and colleges and skill development centers.