Рекомендации относительно DER тренировки (например, свободные веса) для гипертрофии

  Умеренная нагрузка низкоскоростная Традиционная Эксцентрическая с перегрузкой
Тип сокращения Кон и Экс Кон и Экс Экс (кон по выбору)
Упражнение Одно и/или многосуставные Одно и/или многосуставные Одно и/или многосуставные
Нагрузка ≈50% РМ 8 – 10 РМ (диапазон 6 - 12) ≈75-80% РМ Экс => 105% PM Кон => 60 – 75% РМ
Повторения 8 – 14 до мышечного утомления 8 – 10 до мышечного утомления или близко к нему 4 – 6
Подходы 1 – 3 в упражнении. Увеличиваются от 1 до 3- 4 для группы мышц 1 – 3 в упражнении. Увеличиваются от 1-2 до 3-6 для группы мышц 1 – 5 в упражнении. Увеличиваются от 1-2 до 3- 5 для группы мышц
Скорость и продолжительность повторения Медленная Экс = 2 -3 секунды Кон = 2- 3 секунды Умеренная Экс = 1- 2 секунды Кон = 1- 2 секунды Медленная/умеренная Экс = 2 -4 секунды Кон = 1- 2 секунды
Отдых между подходами 30 – 60 секунд 60 – 180 секунд 120 – 180 секунд
Частота 2 – 3 занятия для мышечной группы в неделю 2 – 3 занятия для мышечной группы в неделю 1 – 3 занятия для мышечной группы в неделю
Комментарии Метод подходит для начинающих и людей с плохой переносимостью высокого усилия Рекомендации приведены для начинающих и средне тренированных людей, хорошо тренированным необходимо увеличить вариативность интенсивности и объёма Преимущественно для продвинутых и элитных спортсменов. Прогрессивно, но осторожно увеличивать нагрузку и объём эксцентрической фазы
Кон – концентрический; Экс – эксцентрический; РМ – разовый максимум

 


Таблица 2.

Рекомендации относительно аккомодационной тренировки для гипертрофии

  Умеренно быстрая концентрическая Медленная концентрическая Аккомодационная эксцентрическая перегрузка
Метод Изокинетическая или гидравлическая Изокинетическая или гидравлическая Изокинетическая или изоинерционный маховик
Мышечное сокращение Кон Кон Экс и Кон (кон по выбору в изокинетической)
Упражнение Одно и/или многосуставные Одно и/или многосуставные Одно и/или многосуставные
Усилие* 90 – 100% 90% Экс = до 100% Кон = до 100%
Повторения 10 – 15 6 – 8
Подходы 3 – 6 в упражнении Прогрессия от 3 до 4 – 6 для группы мышц 3 – 5 в упражнении Прогрессия от 3 до 5 для группы мышц 1 – 5 в упражнении Прогрессия от 1- 2 до 4 – 5 для группы мышц
Скорость 120 – 2400/с 45 – 600/с 45 – 600/с
Отдых между повторениями и подходами, соответственно 1 – 2 секунды 60 – 120 секунд 5 секунд 120 секунд 0 – 5 секунд 120 секунд
Частота 3 – 5 занятий для группы мышц /неделю 3 занятия для группы мышц /неделю 2 занятия для группы мышц /неделю
Кон – концентрически, Экс – эксцентрический * - показывает уровень вращающего момента по отношению к максимальному моменту при данной скорости

 


Таблица 3.

Рекомендации относительно изометрической тренировки для гипертрофии

  Низкоинтенсивная Высокоинтенсивная Максимальной интенсивности
Выбор упражнения Одно и/или многосуставное Одно и/или многосуставное Одно и/или многосуставное
Уровень вращающего момента 30 – 50% МПИС* 70 – 80% МПИС 100% МПИС
Повторения
Подходы 2 – 6 в упражнении Прогрессия от 2 до 4 – 6 на группу мышц 2 – 6 в упражнении Прогрессия от 2 до 4 – 6 на группу мышц 1 - 3 в упражнении Прогрессия от 1 до 3 подходов на группу мышц
Продолжительность напряжения 40 – 60 секунд, и до утомления мышц во время последних 1- 2 подходов 15 – 20 секунд, и до утомления мышц во время последних 1- 2 подходов 3 – 5 секунд
Отдых между повторениями и подходами соответственно 30 – 60 секунд 30 – 60 секунд 25 – 30 секунд 60 секунд
Частота 3 – 4 тренировки для мышечной группы/ неделю 3 – 4 тренировки для мышечной группы/ неделю 3 тренировки для мышечной группы/ неделю
Комментарии Подходит для людей, не способных переносить высокое усилие и при ограничении в движениях, вызванных болью или травмой Подходит для людей, не способных переносить близкие к максимуму усилия Применять с осторожностью, избегая чрезмерной задержки дыхания и высокого давления

*-МПИС – максимальное произвольное изометрическое сокращение


References

1 Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Fundamentals of resistance train-ing: progression and exercise prescription. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 674-88 2 Escamilla R, Wickham R. Exercise-based conditioning and rehabilitation. In: Kolt GS, Snyder-Mackler L, editors. Physi­cal therapies in sports and exercise. London: Churchill Living­stone, 2003: 143-64 3 Kraemer WJ, Adams K, Cafarelli E, et al. American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: progression models in resis­tance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 364-80 4 Rhea MR, Alvar В A, Burkett LN, et al. A meta-analysis to determine the dose response for strength development. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 456-64 5 Rhea MR, Alvar BA, Burkett LN. Single versus multiple sets for strength: a meta-analysis to address the controversy. Res Q Exerc Sport 2002; 73: 485-8 6 Peterson MD, Rhea MR, Alvar BA. Maximizing strength development in athletes: a meta-analysis to determine the dose-response relationship. J Strength Cond Res 2004; 18: 377-82 7 Rhea MR, Alderman BL. A meta-analysis of periodized versus nonperiodized strength and power training programs. Res Q Exerc Sport 2004; 75: 413-22 8 Wolfe BL, LeMura LM, Cole PJ. Quantitative analysis of single- vs multiple-set programs in resistance training. J Strength Cond Res 2004; 18: 35-47 9 Atha J. Strengthening muscle. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1981; 9:1-73 10.Behm DG. Neuromuscular implications and applications of resistance training. J Strength Cond Res 1995; 9: 264-74 11.Hakkinen K. Neuromuscular adaptation during strength training, aging, detraining, and immobilization. Crit Rev Phys Rehab Med 1994; 6: 161-98 12.Fry AC. The role of resistance exercise intensity on muscle fibre adaptations. Sports Med 2004; 34: 663-79 13.Choi J, Takahashi H, Itai Y, et al. The difference between effects of 'power-up type' and 'bulk-up type' strength training exer­cises: with special reference to muscle cross-sectionai area, muscular strength, anaerobic power and anaerobic endurance. Jpn J Phys Fitness Sports Med 1998; 47 (1): 119-29 14.Masuda K, Choi JY, Shimojo H, et al. Maintenance of myoglobin concentration in human skeletal muscle after heavy resistance training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 79: 347-52 15.Schmidtbleicher D, Buehrle M. Neuronal adaptation and increase of cross-sectional area studying different strength train­ing methods. In: Jonsson GB, editor. Biomechanics X-B, vol­ume 6-B. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1987: 615-20 16.Stone MH, O'Bryant HS. Weight training: a scientific approach. Minneapolis (MI): Bellweather press, 1987 17.Poliquin C. Five steps to increasing the effectiveness of your strength training program. Natl Strength Cond Assoc J 1988; 10: 34-9 18.Campos GE, Luecke TJ, Wendeln HK, et al. Muscular adaptations in response to three different resistance-training regi­mens: specificity of repetition maximum training zones. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 88: 50-60 19.Reeves ND, Maganaris CN, Narici MV. Ultrasonographic assessment of human skeletal muscle size. Eur J Appl Physiol 2004; 91: 116-8 20.Miyatani M, Kanehisa H, Kuno S, et al. Validity of ultrasonograph muscle thickness measurements for estimating muscle volume of knee extensors in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 86: 203-8 21.fkai M, Fukunaga T. A study on training effect on strength per unit cross-sectional area of muscle by means of ultrasonic measurement. Eur J Appl Physiol 1970; 28: 173-80 22.Knuttgen HG, Komi PV. Basic considerations for exercise. In: Komi PV, editor. Strength and power in sport. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell scientific publications, 2003: 3-7 23.Fleck SJ, Kraemer WJ. Designing resistance training programs. 2nd ed. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1997 24.Grimby G. Clinical aspects of strength and power training. In: Komi PV, editor. Strength and power in sport. Oxford: Blackwell scientific publications, 1992: 338-54 25.O'Hagan FT, Sale DG, MacDougall JD, et al. Comparative effectiveness of accommodating and weight resistance training modes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 1210-9 26.Baker D, Wilson G, Carlyon B. Generality versus specificity: a comparison of dynamic and isometric measures of strength and speed-strength. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 68: 350-5 27.Tesch PA, Ekberg A, Lindquist DM, et al. Muscle hypertrophy following 5-week resistance training using a non-gravity-de­pendent exercise system. Acta Physiol Scand 2004; 180: 89-98 28.Caruso JF, Hamill JL, Hernandez DA, et al. A comparison of isoload and isoinertial leg press training on bone and muscle outcomes. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19: 592-8 29.Murphy AJ, Wilson GJ. The assessment of human dynamicmuscular function: a comparison of isoinertial and isokinetic tests. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1996; 36: 169-77 30.Hoeger WWK, Hopkins DR, Barette SL, et al. Relationship between repetitions and selected percentages of one repetition maximum: a comparison between untrained and trained males and females. J Appl Sports Sci Res 1990; 4: 47-54 31.Hickson RC, Hidaka K, Foster C. Skeletal muscle fiber type,resistance training, and strength-related performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 593-8 32.Wathan D. Load assignment. In: Baechle T, editor. Essentials of strength training and conditioning. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1994: 435-9 33.LaSuer DA, McCormick JH, Mayhew JL, et al. The accuracy of prediction equations for estimating 1-RM performance in the bench press, squat, and deadlift. J Strength Cond Res 1997; 11: 211-3 34.Dudley GA, Harris RT, Duvoisin MR. Effect of voluntary vs artificial activation on the relationship of muscle torque to speed. J Appl Physiol 1990; 69: 2215-21 35.Amiridis IG, Martin A, Morion B, et al. Co-activation and tension-regulating phenomena during isokinetic knee exten­sion in sedentary and highly skilled humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 149-56 36.MacDougall JD. Adaptability of muscle to strength training: a cellular approach. In: Saltin B, editor. Biochemistry of Exer­cise VI. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1986: 501-13 37.Hortobagyi T, Katch FI. Eccentric and concentric torque-velocity relationships during arm flexion and extension: influence of strength level. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 60: 395-401 38.Paddon-Jones D, Leveritt M, Lonergan A, et al. Adaptation to chronic eccentric exercise in humans: the influence of contrac­tion velocity. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001; 85: 466-71 39.Atherton PJ, Babraj J, Smith K, et al. Selective activation of AMPK PGC-lalpha or PKB-TSC2-mTOR signaling can ex­plain specific adaptive responses to endurance or resistance training-like electrical muscle stimulation. FASEB J 2005; 19: 786-8 40.Deschenes MR, Kraemer WJ. Performance and physiologic adaptations to resistance training. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 81 (11 Suppl.): S3-16 41.Maughan RJ, Watson JS, Weir J. Muscle strength and cross-sectional area in man: a comparison of strength-trained and untrained subjects. Br J Sports Med 1984; 18: 149-57 42.Narici MV, Roi GS, Landoni L, et al. Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 59: 310-9 43.Narici MV, Hoppeler H, Kayser B, et al. Human quadriceps cross-sectional area, torque and neural activation during 6 months strength training. Acta Physiol Scand 1996; 157: 175-86 44.Aagaard P, Andersen JL, Dyhre-Poulsen P, et al. A mechanismfor increased contractile strength of human pennate muscle in response to strength training: changes in muscle architecture. J Physiol 2001; 534: 613-23 45.Ahtiainen JP, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Muscle hypertrophy,hormonal adaptations and strength development during strength training in strength-trained and untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 555-63 46.Ahtiainen JP, Pakarinen A, Alen M, et al. Short vs long rest period between the sets in hypertrophic resistance training: influence on muscle strength, size, and hormonal adaptations in trained men. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19: 572-82 47.D'Antona G, Lanfranconi F, Pellegrino MA, et al. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy and structure and function of skeletal muscle fibres in male body builders. J Physiol 2006; 570: 611-27 48.Housh DJ, Housh TJ, Johnson GO, et al. Hypertrophic responseto unilateral concentric isokinetic resistance training. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73: 65-70 49.Tracy BL, Ivey FM, Hurlbut D, et al. Muscle quality: II. Effects of strength training in 65- to 75-yr-old men and women. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 195-201 50.Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Andersen JL, et al. MRI assessment of quadriceps muscle size before and after resistance training: determination of volume vs single-site CSA. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33 (5 Suppl.): S147 51.Tracy BL, Ivey FM, Metter EJ, et al. Muscle volume measure-ment: single vs multiple axial MRI slices. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31 (5 Suppl.): S384 52.Tracy BL, Ivey FM, Metter EJ, et al. A more efficient magnetic resonance imaging-based strategy for measuring quadriceps muscle volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 425-33 53.McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Dickinson A, et al. Muscle fiberhypertrophy, hyperplasia, and capillary density in college men after resistance training. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81: 2004-12 54.Young A, Stokes M, Round JM, et al. The effect of high-resistance training on the strength and cross-sectional area of the human quadriceps. Eur J Clin Invest 1983; 13: 411-7 55.Jones DA, Rutherford OM. Human muscle strength training: the effects of three different regimes and the nature of the resultant changes. J Physiol 1987; 391: 1-11 56.Hakkinen K, Kallinen M, Komi PV, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations during short-term 'normal' and reduced training periods in strength athletes. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 1991; 31: 35-42 57.Rutherford OM, Jones DA. Measurement of fibre pennation using ultrasound in the human quadriceps in vivo. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 433-7 58.Sale DG, Martin JE, Moroz DE. Hypertrophy without increased isometric strength after weight training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 51-5 59.Hakkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kallinen M. Neuromuscular adaptations and serum hormones in women during short-term inten­sive strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 64: 106-11 60.Ploutz LL, Tesch PA, Biro RL, et al. Effect of resistance training on muscle use during exercise. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 1675-81 61.Hakkinen K, Kallinen M. Distribution of strength training volume into one or two daily sessions and neuromuscular adapta­tions in female athletes. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 1994; 34: 117-24 62.Smith RC, Rutherford OM. The role of metabolites in strength training: part I. A comparison of eccentric and concentric contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 71: 332-6 63.Hakkinen K, Hakkinen A. Neuromuscular adaptations during intensive strength training in middle-aged and elderly males and females. Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol 1995; 35: 137-47 64.Hakkinen K, Kallinen M, Linnamo V, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations during bilateral versus unilateral strength training in middle-aged and elderly men and women. Acta Physiol Scand 1996; 158: 77-88 65.Hisaeda H, Miyagawa K, Kuno S, et al. Influence of two different modes of resistance training in female subjects. Ergo­nomics 1996; 39: 842-52 66.Welle S, Totterman S, Thornton C. Effect of age on muscle hypertrophy induced by resistance training. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1996; 51: M270-5 67.McCarthy JP, Bamman MM, Yelle JM, et al. Resistance exercise training and the orthostatic response. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 76: 32-40 68.Housh DJ, Housh TJ, Weir JP, et al. Effects of unilateral concentric-only dynamic constant external resistance training on quadriceps femoris cross-sectional area. J Strength Cond Res 1998; 12: 185-91 69.Housh DJ, Housh TJ, Weir JP, et al. Effects of unilateral eccentric-only dynamic constant external resistance training on quadriceps femoris cross-sectional area. J Strength Cond Res 1998; 12: 192-8 70.Hakkinen K, Newton RU, Gordon SE, et al. Changes in muscle morphology, electromyographic activity, and force production characteristics during progressive strength training in young and older men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998; 53: B415-23 71.Hakkinen K, Kallinen M, Izquierdo M, et al. Changes in ago- nist-antagonist EMG, muscle CSA, and force during strength training in middle-aged and older people. J Appl Physiol 1998; 84: 1341-9 72.Ivey FM, Roth SM, Ferrell RE, et al. Effects of age, gender, and myostatin genotype on the hypertrophic response to heavy resistance strength training. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55: M641-8 73.Izquierdo M, Hakkinen K, Ibanez J, et al. Effects of strength training on muscle power and serum hormones in middle-aged and older men. J Appl Physiol 2001; 90: 1497-507 74.Hakkinen K, Pakarinen A, Hannonen P, et al. Effects of strength training on muscle strength, cross-sectional area, maximal electromyographic activity, and serum hormones in preme­nopausal women with fibromyalgia. J Rheumatol 2002; 29: 1287-95 75.Takarada Y, Ishii N. Effects of low-intensity resistance exercise with short interset rest period on muscular function in middle-aged women. J Strength Cond Res 2002; 16: 123-8 76.Takarada Y, Sato Y, Ishii N. Effects of resistance exercise combined with vascular occlusion on muscle function in ath­letes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 86: 308-14 77.McCarthy JP, Pozniak MA, Agrc JC. Neuromuscular adaptations to concurrent strength and endurance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 511-9 78.Hakkinen K, Alen M, Kraemer WJ, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations during concurrent strength and endurance training ver­sus strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 42-52 79.Vikne H, Refsnes PE, Medb0 JI. Effect of training frequency of maximum eccentric strength training on muscle force and cross-sectional area in strength-trained athletes [abstract no. RR-PL-0517]. In: Book of abstracts, 14th International WCPT Congress; 2003 June 7-12; Barcelona 80.Friedmann B, Kinscherf R, Borisch S, et al. Effects of Iow-resistance/high-repetition strength training in hypoxia on mus­cle structure and gene expression. Pflugers Arch 2003; 446: 742-51 81.Friedmann B, Kinscherf R, Vorwald S, et al. Muscular adaptations to computer-guided strength training with eccentric over­load. Acta Physiol Scand 2004; 182: 77-88 82.Goto K, Nagasawa M, Yanagisawa O, et al. Muscular adaptations to combinations of high- and low-intensity resistance exercises. J Strength Cond Res 2004; 18: 730-7 83.Takarada Y, Tsuruta T, Ishii N. Cooperative effects of exercise and occlusive stimuli on muscular function in low-intensity resistance exercise with moderate vascular occlusion. Jpn J Physiol 2004; 54: 585-92 8"4. Abe T, Yasuda T, Midorikawa T, et al. Skeletal muscle size and circulating IGF-1 are increased after two weeks of twice daily Kaatsu resistance training [online]. Int J Kaatsu Training Res 2005; 1: 7-14. [Accessed 2005 April 25] 85.Goto K, Ishii N, Kizuka T, et al. The impact of metabolic stress on hormonal responses and muscular adaptations. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 955-63 86.Izquierdo M, Hakkinen K, Ibanez J, et al. Effects of combined resistance and cardiovascular training on strength, power, muscle cross-sectional area, and endurance markers in middle-aged men. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005; 94: 70-5 87.Norrbrand L, Pozzo M, Tesch P. Jamforelse av traningseffekter efter 5 veckors styrketraning med tva olika belastningsst-rategier (in Swedish) [abstract]. Svensk Idrottsmedicin 2005; 24 (4): 30-1 88.Tanimoto M, Ishii N. Effects of low-intensity resistance exercise with slow movement and tonic force generation on muscu­lar function in young men. J Appl Physiol 2006; 100: 1150-7 89.Coburn JW, Housh DJ, Housh TJ, et al. Effects of leucine and whey protein supplementation during 8 weeks of unilateral resistance training. J Strength Cond Res 2006; 20: 284-9 90.Kubo K, Komuro T, Ishiguro N, et al. Effects of low-load resistance training with vascular occlusion on the mechanical properties of muscle and tendon. J Appl Biomech. 2006; 22: 112-9 91.Leger B, Cartoni R, Praz M, et al. Akt signalling through GSK-3(beta), mTOR and foxol is involved in human skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy. J Physiol 2006; 576: 923-33 92.Popov DV, Swirkun DV, Netreba Al, et al. Hormonal adaptation determines the increase in muscle mass and strength during low-intensity strength training without relaxation. Human Physiology 2006; 32 (5): 609-14 93.Petersen SR, Bagnall KM, Wenger HA, et al. The influence of velocity-specific resistance training on the in vivo torque-velocity relationship and the cross-sectional area of quadriceps femoris. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1989; 11: 456-62 94.Petersen S, Wessel J, Bagnall K, et al. Influence of concentric resistance training on concentric and eccentric strength. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990; 71: 101-5 95.Petersen SR, Bell GJ, Bagnall KM, et al. Influence of concentric resistance training on eccentric peak torque and muscle cross-sectional area. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1991; 13: 132-7 96.Bell GJ, Petersen SR, Wessel J, et al. Physiological adaptations to concurrent endurance training and low velocity resistance training. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12: 384-90 97.Bell GJ, Petersen SR, Wessel J, et al. Adaptations to endurance training and low velocity resistance training performed in a sequence. Can J Sport Sci 1991; 16: 186-92 98.Bell GJ, Petersen SR, MacLean I, et al. Effect of high velocity resistance training on peak torque, cross sectional area and myofibrillar ATPase activity. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1992; 32: 10-8 99.Ruther CL, Golden CL, Harris RT, et al. Hypertrophy, resistance training, and the nature of skeletal muscle activation. J Strength Cond Res 1995; 9: 155-9 100.Higbie EJ, Cureton KJ, Warren GL, et al. Effects of concentric and eccentric training on muscle strength, cross-sectional area, and neural activation. J Appl Physiol 1996, 81 101.Housh DJ, Housh TJ, Weir JP, et al. Concentric isokinetic resistance training and quadriceps femoris cross-sectional area. Isokin Exerc Sci 1996; 6: 101-8 102.Seger JY, Arvidsson B, Thorstensson A. Specific effects of eccentric and concentric training on muscle strength and mor­phology in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 79: 49-57 103.Akima H, Takahashi H, Kuno SY, et al. Early phase adaptations of muscle use and strength to isokinetic training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 588-94 104.Rafeei T. The effects of training at equal power levels using concentric and eccentric contractions on skeletal muscle fiber and whole muscle hypertrophy, muscle force and muscle acti­vation in human subjects [dissertation]. Richmond (VA): Vir­ginia Commonwealth University, 1999 105.Seynnes OR, de Boer M, Narici MV. Early skeletal muscle hypertrophy and architectural changes in response to high-intensity resistance training. J Appl Physiol. Epub 2006 Oct 19 106.Garfinkel S, Cafarelli E. Relative changes in maximal force, EMG, and muscle cross-sectional area after isometric training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 1220-7 107.Schott J, McCully K, Rutherford OM. The role of metabolites in strength training: II. Short versus long isometric contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 71: 337-41 108.Kubo K, Kanehisa H, Fukunaga T. Effects of different duration isometric contractions on tendon elasticity in human quadri­ceps muscles. J Physiol 2000; 536: 649-55 109.Kubo K, Ohgo K, Takeishi R, et al. Effects of isometric training at different knee angles on the muscle-tendon complex in vivo. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2006; 16: 159-67 110.Kubo K, Yata H, Kanehisa H, et al. Effects of isometric squat training on the tendon stiffness and jump performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2006; 96: 305-14 111.Sale DG, MacDougall JD, Jacobs I, et al. Interaction between concurrent strength and endurance training. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 260-70 112.Sale DG, Jacobs I, MacDougall JD, et al. Comparison of two regimens of concurrent strength and endurance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 348-56 113.Kraemer WJ, Nindl ВС, Ratamess NA, et al. Changes in muscle hypertrophy in women with periodized resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 697-708 114.Akima H, Kubo K, Kanehisa H, et al. Leg-press resistance training during 20 days of 6 degrees head-down-tilt bed rest prevents muscle deconditioning. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 82: 30-8 115.Akima H, Kubo K, Imai M, et al. Inactivity and muscle: effect of resistance training during bed rest on muscle size in the lower limb. Acta Physiol Scand 2001; 172: 269-78 116.Schulze K, Gallagher P, Trappe S. Resistance training preserves skeletal muscle function during unloading in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 303-13 117.Kubo K, Akima H, Ushiyama J, et al. Effects of resistance training during bed rest on the viscoelastic properties of tendon structures in the lower limb. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2004; 14: 296-302 118.Tesch PA, Trieschmann JT, Ekberg A. Hypertrophy of chronically unloaded muscle subjected to resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 2004; 96: 1451-8 119.Alkner BA, Tesch PA. Efficacy of a gravity-independent resistance exercise device as a countermeasure to muscle atrophy during 29-day bed rest. Acta Physiol Scand 2004; 181: 345-57 120.Shackelford LC, LeBlanc AD, Driscoll ТВ. Resistance exercise as a countermeasure to disuse-induced bone loss. J Appl Physi­ol 2004; 97: 119-29 121.Mulder ER, Stegeman DF, Gerrits KH, et al. Strength, size and activation of knee extensors followed during 8 weeks of hori­zontal bed rest and the influence of a countermeasure. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006; 97: 706-15 122.Stevenson SW, Dudley GA. Dietary creatine supplementation and muscular adaptation to resistive overload. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1304-10 123.Gondin J, Guette M, Ballay Y, et al. Electromyostimulation training effects on neural drive and muscle architecture. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 1291-9 124.Fukunaga T, Sugiyama M. The effect of static and dynamic strength training on absolute muscle strength. Jap J Phys Educ 1978; 22: 343-9 125.Sale D, MacDougall D, Alway S, et al. Effect of low vs high repetition weight training upon strength, muscle size and mus­cle fiber size [abstract]. Can J Spt Sci 1985; 10 (4): 27P 126.Refsnes PE. En treningsmetode, hvor en aktivert muskel strek-kes forut for forkortning, og denne treningsmetodens innvirkn-ing pa 1RM og vinkelhastighet ved lett belastning (in Norwe­ gian) [dissertation]. Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Os­lo, Norway, 1986 127.Dahl HA, Aaserud R, Jensen J. Muscle hypertrophy after light and heavy resistance training [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24 (5 Suppl.): S55 128.Narici MV, Kayser B. Hypertrophic response of human skeletal muscle to strength training in hypoxia and normoxia. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 70: 213-9 129.Moss BM, Refsnes PE, Abildgaard A, et al. Effects of maximal effort strength training with different loads on dynamic strength, cross-sectional area, load-power and load-velocity relationships. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 75: 193-9 130.Bemben DA, Fetters NL, Bemben MG, et al. Musculoskeletal responses to high- and low-intensity resistance training in early postmenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1949-57 131.Takarada Y, Takazawa H, Sato Y, et al. Effects of resistance exercise combined with moderate vascular occlusion on mus­cular function in humans. J Appl Physiol 2000; 88: 2097-106 132.Okada J, Fukashiro S. Effects of resistance training associated with stretch-shortening cycle exercise on force development and muscle volume in human elbow flexors. Adv Exerc Sports Physiol 2001; 7: 65-71 133.Brandenburg JP, Docherty D. The effects of accentuated eccentric loading on strength, muscle hypertrophy and neural adap­tations in trained individuals. J Strength Cond Res 2002; 16: 25-32 134.Wirth K, Atzor KR, Schmidtbleicher D. Changes in muscle mass detected by MRI, after an eight week hypertrophy train­ing program. In: Koskolou M, editor. Proceedings of 7th annual Congress of the European College of Sports Sciences; 2002 Jul 24-27; Athens, 103 135.Walker KS, Kambadur R, Sharma M, et al. Resistance training alters plasma myostatin but not IGF-1 in healthy men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 787-93 136.Hubal MJ, Gordish-Dressman H, Thompson PD, et al. Variability in muscle size and strength gain after unilateral resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 964-72 137.Vikne H, Refsnes PE, Ekmark M, et al. Muscular performance after concentric and eccentric exercise in trained men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1770-81 138.Shepstone TN, Tang JE, Dallaire S, et al. Short-term high- vs low-velocity isokinetic lengthening training results in greater hypertrophy of the elbow flexors in young men. J Appl Physiol 2005; 98: 1768-76 139.Davies J, Parker DF, Rutherford OM, et al. Changes in strength and cross-sectional area of the elbow flexors as a result of isometric strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 1988; 57: 667-70 140.Chesley A, MacDougall JD, Tarnopolsky MA, et al. Changes in human muscle protein synthesis after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73: 1383-8 141.MacDougall JD, Gibala MJ, Tarnopolsky MA, et al. The time course for elevated muscle protein synthesis following heavy resistance exercise. Can J Appl Physiol 1995; 20: 480-6 142.Phillips SM, Tipton KD, Aarsland A, et al. Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol 1997; 273: E99-107 143.Miller BF, Olesen JL, Hansen M, et al. Coordinated collagen and muscle protein synthesis in human patella tendon and quadriceps muscle after exercise. J Physiol 2005; 567:1021-33 144.Garhammer J, Takano B. Training for weightlifting. In: Komi PV, editor. Strength and power in sport. Oxford: Blackwell scientific publications, 1992: 357-69 145.Tesch PA. Strength training and muscle hypertrophy. In: Hak-kinen K, editor. Conference book: international conference on weightlifting and strength training; Lahti, Finland, 1998 No­vember 10-12; Jyvaskyla: Gummerus printing, 1998: 17-22 146.Ostrowski K, Wilson GJ, Weatherby R, et al. The effect of weight training volume on hormonal output and muscular size and function. J Strength Cond Res 1997; 11: 148-54 147.McLester JR, Bishop P, Guilliams ME. Comparison of 1 day and 3 days per week of equal-volume resistance training in experienced subjects. J Strength Cond Res 2000; 14: 273-81 148.Hawkins SA, Schroeder ET, Wiswell RA, et al. Eccentric muscle action increases site-specific osteogenic response. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 1287-92 149.Hortobagyi T, Hill JP, Houmard JA, et al. Adaptive responses to muscle lengthening and shortening in humans. J Appl Physiol 1996; 80: 765-72 150.Hortobagyi T, Dempsey L, Fraser D, et al. Changes in muscle strength, muscle fibre size and myofibrillar gene expression after immobilization and retraining in humans. J Physiol 2000; 524: 293-304 151.Farthing JP, Chilibeck PD. The effects of eccentric and concentric training at different velocities on muscle hypertrophy. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 578-86 152.Ewing JL, Wolfe DR, Rogers MA, et al. Effects of velocity of isokinetic training on strength, power, and quadriceps muscle fibre characteristics. Eur J Appl Physiol 1990; 61: 159-62 153.Coyle EF, Feiring DC, Rotkis TC, et al. Specificity of power improvements through slow and fast isokinetic training. J Appl Physiol 1981; 51: 1437-42 154.Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Trolle M, et al. Moment and power generation during maximal knee extensions performed at low and high speeds. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 69: 376-81 155.Thomee R, Renstrom P, Grimby G, et al. Slow or fast isokinetic training after knee ligament surgery. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1987; 8: 475-9 156.Frobose I, Verdonck A, Duesberg F, et al. Effects of various load intensities in the framework of postoperative stationary endurance training on performance deficit of the quadriceps muscle of the thigh [in German]. Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb 1993; 131: 164-7 157.Greenhaff PL, Soderlund K, Ren JM, et al. Energy metabolism in single human muscle fibres during intermittent contraction with occluded circulation. J Physiol 1993; 460: 443-53 158.McHugh MP, Tyler TF, Greenberg SC, et al. Differences in activation patterns between eccentric and concentric quadri­ceps contractions. J Sports Sci 2002; 20: 83-91 159.Starkey DB, Pollock ML, Ishida Y, et al. Effect of resistance training volume on strength and muscle thickness. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 1311-20 160.Pollock ML, Abe T, DeHoyos DV, et al. Muscular hypertrophy responses to 6 months of high or low volume resistance training [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30 (5 Suppl.): S116 161.McBride JM, Blaak JB, Triplett-McBride T. Effect of resistance exercise volume and complexity on EMG, strength, and re­gional body composition. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90: 626-32 162.Ronnestad RB, Kadi F, Raastad T, et al. Dissimilar effects of I and 3 set strength training on strength and muscle mass gains in upper and lower body in untrained subjects. J Strength Cond Res. In press 163.Mayhew TP, Rothstein JM, Finucane SD, et al. Muscular adaptation to concentric and eccentric exercise at equal power levels. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 868-73 164.Herzog W, Abrahamse SK, ter Keurs HE. Theoretical determination of force-length relations of intact human skeletal mus­cles using the cross-bridge model. Pflugers Arch 1990; 416: 113-9 165.Ichinose Y, Kawakami Y, Ito M, et al. Estimation of activeforce-length characteristics of human vastus lateralis muscle. Acta Anat (Basel) 1997; 159: 78-83 166.Westing SH, Seger JY, Thorstensson A. Effects of electrical stimulation on eccentric and concentric torque-velocity rela­tionships during knee extension in man. Acta Physiol Scand 1990; 140: 17-22 167.Dugailly PM, Mouraux D, Llamas N, et al. EMGs and strength patterns of the quadriceps during isokinetic extension of the knee in different contraction mode. Isokin Exerc Sci 2002; 10: 21-2 168.Holder-Powell HM, Rutherford OM. Reduction in range of movement can increase maximum voluntary eccentric forces for the human knee extensor muscles. Eur J Appl Physiol 1999; 80: 502-4 169.Colliander E. Influence of concentric and eccentric muscle actions on acute strength patterns and adaptive responses to resistance training [dissertation]. Stockholm: Karolinska Insti-tutet, 1992 170.Ichinose Y, Kawakami Y, Ito M, et al. In vivo estimation of contraction velocity of human vastus lateralis muscle during 'isokinetic' action. J Appl Physiol 2000; 88: 851-6 171.Rooney KJ, Herbert RD, Balnave RJ. Fatigue contributes to the strength training stimulus. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 1160-4 172.Drinkwater EJ, Lawton TW, Lindsell RP, et al. Training leading to repetition failure enhances bench press strength gains in elite junior athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19: 382-8 173.Pincivero DM, Campy RM. The effects of rest interval length and training on quadriceps femoris muscle: part I. Knee exten­sor torque and muscle fatigue. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2004; 44: 111-8 174.Folland JP, Irish CS, Roberts JC, et al. Fatigue is not a necessary stimulus for strength gains during resistance training. Br J Sports Med 2002; 36: 370-3 175.Tesch PA, Dudley GA, Duvoisin MR, et al. Force and EMG signal patterns during repeated bouts of concentric or eccentric muscle actions. Acta Physiol Scand 1990; 138: 263-71 176.Grabiner MD, Owings TM. Effects of eccentrically and concentrically induced unilateral fatigue on the involved and uninvolved limbs. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 1999; 9: 185-9 177.Kay D, St Clair Gibson A, Mitchell MJ, et al. Different neuromuscular recruitment patterns during eccentric, concentric and isometric contractions. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2000; 10: 425-31 178.Dow DE, Cederna PS, Hassett CA, et al. Number of contractions to maintain mass and force of a denervated rat muscle. Muscle Nerve 2004; 30: 77-86 179.Dow DE, Faulkner JA, Dennis RG. Distribution of rest periods between electrically generated contractions in denervated mus­cles of rats. Artif Organs 2005; 29: 432-5 180.Dow DE, Dennis RG, Faulkner JA. Electrical stimulation attenuates denervation and age-related atrophy in extensor dig-itorum longus muscles of old rats. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2005; 60: 416-24 181.Kawakami Y, Abe T, Kuno SY, et al. Training-induced changes in muscle architecture and specific tension. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 72: 37-43 182.Amiridis IG, Cometti G, Morion B, et al. Effects of the type of recovery training on the concentric strength of the knee exten­sors. J Sports Sci 1997; 15: 175-80 183.LaStayo PC, Pierotti DJ, Pifer J, et al. Eccentric ergometry: increases in locomotor muscle size and strength at low training intensities. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000; 278: R1282-8 184.LaStayo PC, Ewy GA, Pierotti DD, et al. The positive effects of negative work: increased muscle strength and decreased fall risk in a frail elderly population. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2003; 58: M419-24 185.Gerber JP, Marcus RL, Dibble LE, et al. Early application of negative work via eccentric ergometry following anterior cru­ciate ligament reconstruction: a case report. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2006; 36: 298-307 186.Fry AC. The role of training intensity in resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching. In: Kreider RB, Fry AC, O'Toole ML, editors. Overtraining in sport. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1998: 107-27 187.Peterson MD, Rhea MR, Alvar BA. Applications of the dose-response for muscular strength development: a review of meta-analytic efficacy and reliability for designing training prescrip­tion. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19: 950-8 188.Refsnes PE. Testing and training for top Norwegian athletes. In: Mffller E, Zollinger G, Ludescher F, editors. Science in elite sport. London: E & FN Spon, 1999: 97-114 189.American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand. The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and flexi­bility in healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30: 975-91 190.Wallace MB, Mills BD, Browning CL. Effects of cross-training on markers of insulin resistance/hyperinsulinemia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 1170-5 191.Woods RH, Reyes R, Welsch MA, et al. Concurrent cardiovascular and resistance training in healthy older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1751-8 192.Kraemer WJ, Keuning M, Ratamess NA, et al. Resistance training combined with bench-step aerobics enhances women's health profile. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 259-69 193.Kawano H, Tanaka H, Miyachi M. Resistance training and arterial compliance: keeping the benefits while minimizing the stiffening. J Hypertens 2006; 24: 1753-9 194.Leveritt M, Abernethy PJ, Barry BK, et al. Concurrent strength and endurance training: a review. Sports Med 1999; 28: 413-27 195.Deakin GB. Concurrent training in endurance athletes: the acute effects on muscle recovery capacity, physiological, hormonal and gene expression responses post-exercise (dissertation) [on­line]. Lismore, Australia: Southern Cross University, 2004. Available from URL: 196.Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 1247-55 197.Sale DG. Neural adaptations to strength training. In: Komi PV, editor. Strength and power in sport. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell scientific publications, 2003: 281-314 198.Phillips SM. Short-term training; when do repeated bouts of resistance exercise become training? Can J Appl Physiol 2000; 25: 185-93 199.Willoughby DS, Taylor L. Effects of sequential bouts of resistance exercise on androgen receptor expression. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 1499-506 200.Foley JM, Jayaraman RC, Prior BM, et al. MR measurements of muscle damage and adaptation after eccentric exercise. J Appl Physiol 1999; 87: 2311-8 201.Willoughby DS, Taylor M, Taylor L. Glucocorticoid receptor and ubiquitin expression after repeated eccentric exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35: 2023-31 202.Trappe ТА, Raue U, Tesch PA. Human soleus muscle protein synthesis following resistance exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 2004; 182: 189-96 203.Turner DL, Hoppeler H, Claassen H, et al. Effects of endurance training on oxidative capacity and structural composition of human arm and leg muscles. Acta Physiol Scand 1997; 161: 459-64 204.Abe T, DeHoyos DV, Pollock ML, et al. Time course for strength and muscle thickness changes following upper and lower body resistance training in men and women. Eur J Appl Physiol 2000; 81: 174-80 205.Rennie MJ, Wackerhage H, Spangenburg EE, et al. Control of the size of the human muscle mass. Annu Rev Physiol 2004; 66: 799-828 206.Glass DJ. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy signaling pathways. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2005; 37: 1974-84 207.Nader GA. Molecular determinants of skeletal muscle mass: getting the 'АКТ' together. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2005; 37: 1985-96 208.Homberger ТА, Esser KA. Mechanotransduction and the regulation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle. Proc Nutr Soc 2004; 63: 331-5 209.Hameed M, Orell RW, Cobbold M, et al. Expression of IGF-I splice variants in young and old human skeletal muscle after high resistance exercise. J Physiol 2003; 547: 247-54 210.Hornberger ТА, Chu WK, Мак YW, et al. The role of phospholipase D and phosphatide acid in the mechanical activation of mTOR signaling in skeletal muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103: 4741-6 211.Boppart MD, Burkin DJ, Kaufman SJ. Alpha7betal-integrin regulates mechanotransduction and prevents skeletal muscle injury. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2006; 290: 1660-5 212.Spangenburg EE, McBride ТА. Inhibition of stretch-activated channels during eccentric muscle contraction attenuates p70S6K activation. J Appl Physiol 2006; 100: 129-35 213.Lange S, Xiang F, Yakovenko A, et al. The kinase domain of titin controls muscle gene expression and protein turnover. Science 2005; 308 (5728): 1599-603 214.Goldberg AL, Etlinger JD, Goldspink DF, et al. Mechanism of work-induced hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. Med Sci Sports 1975; 7: 185-98 215.MacDougall J. Adaptability of muscle to strength training: a cellular approach. In: Saltin B, editor. Biochemistry of exer­cise VI. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1986: 501-13 216.Martineau LC, Gardiner PF. Insight into skeletal muscle mecha-notransduction: МАРК activation is quantitatively related to tension. J Appl Physiol 2001; 91: 693-702 217.Martineau LC, Gardiner PF. Skeletal muscle is sensitive to the tension-time integral but not to the rate of change of tension, as assessed by mechanically induced signaling. J Biomech 2002; 35: 657-63 218.Eliasson J, Elfegoun T, Nilsson J, et al. Maximal lengthening contractions increase p70S6 kinase phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle in the absence of nutritional supply. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006; 291: El 197-205 219.Cuthbertson DJ, Babraj J, Smith K, et al. Anabolic signaling and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle after dynamic shortening or lengthening exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006; 290: 731-8 220.Jones DA, Folland JP. Strength training in young adults. In: Maffuli N, Chan KM, Macdonald R, et al., editors. Sports medicine for specific ages abilities. Edinburgh: Churchill Liv­ingstone, 2001: 57-64 221.Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training. Sports Med 2005; 35: 339-61 222.Uehara K, Goto K, Kobayashi T, et al. Heat-stress enhances proliferative potential in rat soleus muscle. Jpn J Physiol 2004; 54: 263-71 223.Goto K, Okuyama R, Sugiyama H, et al. Effects of heat stress and mechanical stretch on protein expression in cultured skele­tal muscle cells. Pflugers Arch 2003; 447: 247-53 224.Goto K, Honda M, Kobayashi T, et al. Heat stress facilitates the recovery of atrophied soleus muscle in rat. Jpn J Physiol 2004; 54: 285-93 225.Abe T, Kawamoto K, Yasuda T, et al. Eight days Kaatsu-resistance training improved sprint but not jump performance in collegiate male track and field athletes [online]. Int J Kaatsu Training Res 2005; 1: 19-23. Available from URL: [Accessed 2005 April 25] 226.Mazzetti SA, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, et al. The influence of direct supervision of resistance training on strength perform­ance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1175-84 227.Mitsiopoulos N, Baumgartner RN, Heymsfield SB, et al. Cadaver validation of skeletal muscle measurement by magnetic resonance imaging and computerized tomography. J Appl Phys