Stylistic Differentiation of the English Vocabulary
Lecture 2. Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary
1. General considerations. In order to get a more or less idea of the word stock of any language, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. The word stock of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. A special branch of linguistic science-lexicology - has done much to classify vocabulary. For our purpose, i. e. for linguistic stylistics, a special type of classification, stylistic classification is the most important.
Inaccordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word stock of the English language as being divided into three main layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer and the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character. The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confine to a special locality where it circulates.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:
1) common literary; 2) terms and learned words; 3) poetic words; 4) archaic words; 5) barbarisms and foreign words; 6) literary coinages including nonce words.
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:
1) common colloquial words; 2) slang; 3) jargonisms; 4) professional words; 5) dialectal words; 6) vulgar words; 7) colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary.
Formal (Literary) vocabulary: (solemn, elevated, learned, poetic): are words of solemn, elevated character (learned, poetic).
Syn.: Literary words, learned words, bookish words, high-flown words- serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, high poetry and poetic messages, authorial speech of creative prose.
They are mainly observed in the written form and contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness.
E.g. I must decline to pursue this painful discussion. It is not pleasant to my feelings; it is repugnant to my feelings. (D)
“My children, my defrauded, swindled infants!” cried Mr. Renvings. (D)
“The party arranged themselves on the different sides of the lofty apartment, and seemed eager to escape from the transient union, which the narrowness of the crowded entrance had for an instance compelled them to submit to”. (W.Scott)
Stylistic Differentiation of the English Vocabulary
| Literary (Formal) Vocabulary |
| Archaisms Poetic wds |
| Terms |
| Neologisms |
| Foreign Words |
| Barbarisms |
| Common Literary Vocabulary |
| Non – Literary (Informal) Vocabulary |
| Nonce words |
| Dialectal words |
| Vulgarisms |
| Jargon |
| Slang |
| Common Colloquial Vocabulary |
| Neutral Vocabulary |
Terms (special literary words)are words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique: drill adapter, bank-administered trust fund, curve analyzer, laser, diode, and ripple.
Archaic words:
1. Historical words, denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use and have no notion at present: e.g. “yeoman”, coif and distaff; “vassal”, “falconet”.
2. Obsolescent (rarely used), substituted by modern synonyms: thou, thy, art, wilt,-eth.
3. Obsolete (out of use at present, but recognized): methinks, alack, alas.
4. Archaic words proper, in the course of language history ousted by newer synonymous words or forms and not recognized in modern English: troth (faith), a losel (a lazy fellow), anon (soon), “to deem” (to think), “quoth” (“said”), “woe” (sorrow); “maketh” (makes), “thou wilt” (you will), “brethren” (brothers), whereof, aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafter named. E.g. If manners maketh man, then manner and grooming maketh poodle. (J.Steinbeck)
5. Poetic words (diction)denote a set of words traditionally used in poetry:behold, deem, thee, quoth, aught, foe, ere, woe, nigh, oft, anon, morn, visage.
They are mostly used in poetry in the 17 – 19 cc.: e.g. ”steed” - horse, “quoth” - said, “woe” - sorrow, “eftsoons” - again, soon after, “rondure” - roundness .
6. Barbarisms(варваризмы) are foreign words of phrases,words assimilated from foreign languages and sometimes perverted. They are:
a) Fully assimilated (wine, street, reprimand, helicopter);
b) Partially assimilated(machine, police, garage, prestige);
c) Unassimilated: randezvous, belles lettres, alter ego, chic, bonmot, en passant, delicatessen, matador, hippopotamus, marauder, Midi, guerre des baguettes, boulangers, croissants.
7. Neologisms (неологизмы) are new words or expressions: e.g. Take-away, high-rise, hang-glider, wrist phone, cellular phone.
Stylistic functions of literary layer of the vocabulary:
1. To characterize the speech of the bygone epoch and to reproduce atmosphere of antiquity.
2. To introduce the atmosphere or professional activity.
3. To create romantic atmosphere, the general colouring of elevation (in poetry).
4. To introduce the atmosphere of solemnity (in official speech) or the local colouring of the country described.
Neutral words comprise the overwhelming majority of lexis, used in all spheres of human activity and being the main source of synonyms and polysemantic words.
Informal vocabulary comprises words of colloquial, conversational character used in personal, everyday communication.
Informal (colloquial) vocabularyconsists of words formed by means of composition and conversion: go-between, a come-back, a let-down, a has-been, a kill-joy.
“Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed and uncled, and aunted and cousined within an inch of life”.(I.R.G.)
Colloquial words are employed in non-official everyday communication and mark the message as informal, non-official and conversational. Their use is associated with the oral form of communication.
E.g. ”dad”, “kid”, “crony”, “fan”, “to pop”, “folks”.
E.g. She’s engaged. Nice guy, too. Though there’s a slight difference in height. I’d say a foot, her favor. (T. Capote)
Slang is a special vocabulary of low and vulgar type , often fresh and emotional description of an object , being highly colloquial and possessing all the connotations: emotive, expressive, evaluative and stylistic: money (jack, tin, brass, vof, dough, slippery stuff, loot, lolls, gravy, bucks, etc).
(General) slang – (special colloquial words) which are used by most speakers in very and highly informal, substandard communication. They are highly emotive and expressive and as such lose their originality rather fast and are replaced by newer formations, unstable, fluctuating, and tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups.
E.g. pot, grass, groovy, honkie, cool, chick, dough, bread;
fried, crocked, squiffed, loaded plastered, blotto, tiddled, soaked, boiled, stinko, viled, polluted ( to be drunk). (V.A.K.)
E.g. “Do you talk?” asked Bundle. “Or are you just strong and silent?” “Talk?” said Anthony. “I burble. I murmur. I gurgle – like a running brook, you know. Sometimes I even ask questions.” (A.Christie)
Special slang - special colloquial words, which stand close to jargon, also being substandard, expressive and emotive: Army slang: to go west (die); a brass head (officer of high rank).
Jargon - is a low colloquial vocabulary meant to be secret and cryptic (social jargon) or being an expressive idiom of terms in the literary layer of the vocabulary: Jargonisms - are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (professional jargonisms or professionalisms) or socially (jargonisms proper).
They cover a narrow semantic field, function and sphere of application and tend to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups.
Professional jargonisms or Professionalisms (професіоналізми) are connected with the technical side of some profession:
e.g. “driller” = borer, digger, wrencher, hogger, brake weight
e.g. “pipeliner” = swabber, bender, cat, old cat, collar-pecker, hammerman.
They are formed according to the existing word-building patterns of present existing words in new meanings, and, covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semantically limited, offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item.
Jargonisms proper or social jargonisms are served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated; they originated from the thieves’ jargon (l’argo, cant); which was to be cryptic, secretive (its major function): He got a book (life sentence).
Dialect is a regional variety with violation of phonetic and grammatical norm: maister (master), bus [u], cup [u], wee (will), laird (lord), zee (see), zinking (sinking)
Dialectical words (діалектизми) - special colloquial words, which are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong; they markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them; differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating synonyms for the words, accepted by the language in general.
E.g. A hut was all the (= the only) home he ever had.
E.g. Mary sits aside (= beside) of her sister on the bus. (V.A.K.)
Vulgarisms (вульгаризми) are coarse special colloquial words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation: e.g. “son of a bitch”, “whore”, “whorehound”.
e.g. There is so much bad shit between the two gangs that I bet there will be more killings this year. (V.A.K.)
Stylistic functions of non-literary vocabulary:
1. To create true-to-life, authentic atmosphere;
2. To create the atmosphere of informality, intimacy;
3. To create a sense of immediate communication with the reader;
4. To create a satirical or ironical effect.