Ordering points; adding information

PARAGRAPH COHERENCE

Even when a paragraph is unified, and the topic sentence is supported, the paragraph can still sound choppy, that is, rough or interrupted, unless the writer uses coherence devices to make the paragraph smoother. Coherence means "to stick together"; in writing, it means that one thought flows smoothly into the next, that a thought is connected to one that comes before it.

There are three ways to achieve coherence: logical, grammatical and lexical.

Logical devices are words or phrases which indicate meaning relationships between or within sentences. It is through devices like conjunctions and sentence adverbials that the writer is able to organize his ideas and to help his reader follow him from one sentence to another:

I have been watching television since I got home at six o'clock.

Frankly, I wish I didn’thave television.

Equally important for the cohesion of a text are the links established by certain grammatical devices, such as those, for example, which signal relationship between sentences by means of back reference (or anaphora):

Dialogue is a form of presentation representing the speech of two or more people addressed to each other. It is used in poetry, prose and drama.

A text written with irony has a hidden meaning

which is often the opposite of the first meaning. The reader is intended

to understand the implied meaning of the text.

Go to the reference library.

Here you will find the books you need.

The writer can employ such grammatical devices as personal, possessive and demonstrative pronouns, tenses, moods, case, number nouns, articles, adverbs, etc.

Almost any text displays a great deal of cohesion on a lexical level. Lexical coherence is achieved with the help of:

a) words belonging to one and the same semantic sphere

The sonnet consists of fourteen lines. There are two main forms of the sonnet: the Petrarchan sonnet and the Shakespearian sonnet.

b) synonyms

A dramatist is a writer of plays (drama), also called a playwright.

c) antonyms

Unlike fiction, a documentary novel is based on real, documentary events

such newspaper stories, legal reports, official reports or

facts about the lives of real people.

d) equivalent expressions

The stream of consciousness is the description of the flow of inner experience through the mind of a character, usually in a novel. It is also described

by the term interior monologue.

e) derivatives

A thriller is a novel or a play which has an exciting plot.

It is written in order thrill and even to frighten the reader.

f) hyperonyms and hyponyms

The genre is a type of literary art; epic, tragedy, melodrama, satire are

literary genres.

WAYS OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

An example is a specific instance that explains a more general idea. (Red is an example of a colour, the USA is an example of a country, etc.) Examples are specific and are easier to understand than more general ideas.

A detail is a particular part or characteristic of a whole thing or a whole idea. Details are frequently used in a description.

A fact is something which is objectively verifiable.

A statistic is a numerical fact which presents significant information about a given subject.

The most common method of paragraph development is enumeration.

Enumeration means starting with a general class, then proceeding to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts.

There are 3 ways in which an item can be singled out:

ü Descending order

ü Ascending order

ü Equal order

In descending order the writer lists the most important point first, then goes on to speak on the other points. There is a special group of listing signals, indicating descending order: the most essential, the most important, primarily, the largest/chief (reason), etc.

In ascending order, the writer lists the minor points first, saving the most important for last. This keeps the reader interested since the paragraph has a kind of dramatic structure to it: it builds up or ascends to a climax. Listing signals are almost the same: but the most important, etc.

When all the parts are important, we have equal order.

Comparison means pointing out likenesses.

Structures of comparison:

1. Adjective/preposition: exactly the same as, similar to, like smb in that,etc.

2. Attached structures: and… too, and so (was he)

3. Correlative conjunctions: both (Mike) and (Tom), neither… nor, just as (Tom), so (Mike)

4. Predicate structures: to resemble, to have (noun) in common, there are similarities

5. Sentence connectors: similarly, correspondingly, likewise, in the same way, by the same token

6. Punctuation only

Contrast means pointing out differences.

Structures of contrast:

1. –er… than, more… than, less… than, as…as

2. Prepositions: unlike, contrary to, as opposed to

3. Adverbial clauses: while, whereas

4. Verbal structures: (Tom) differs from (Mike) in respect to, contrasts with, is different from

5. Sentence connectors: however, on the other hand, in contrast

6. Conjunctions: but

7. Punctuation only

Methods of contrast:

Quality 1

Quality 2

Quality 1

Quality 2

Quality 3

Quality 1

Quality 2

Quality 3

When you use a cause-effect method of development, this will often mean that you are supporting your topic sentence by listing or enumerating.

In a cause-effect development there is always a causal relationship between the topic sentence and the supporting sentences, or even between major supporting sentences and minor ones. This means that your supporting sentences become a list of either effects or causes.

Effect is what a certain situation has led to or resulted in.

Cause is a reason or explanation why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did.

Two patterns:

Cause 1, cause 2, cause 3 situation

Situation cause 1, cause 2, cause 3

Basic structures of cause-effect development:

1. Sentence connectors

2. Conjunctions

3. Clause structures

4. Phrase structures

5. Predicate structures

6. Participial phrases

SENTENCE ADVERBIALS

Time

After a while

Initially

After that

In no time

Afterwards

Instantly

As yet

At first

At last

At once

At present

At the moment

At the same time

Before that / then, etc.

Beforehand

By then/that time

Earlier

Eventually

Ever since (then)

Finally

First

From then on

Hitherto

Immediately

In the end

In the meantime

Lastly

Later on

Meanwhile

Now

Previously

Simultaneously

Since then

So far

Soon

Subsequently

Suddenly

Then

Until then

Within minutes / days

Ordering points; adding information

Above all

Additionally

Again

Also

And

And then

As we shall see later

As well

As well as that

Besides

First(ly) / Second(ly), etc.

First of all

Finally

For one / another thing

Furthermore

In addition

In the first place

Last(ly)

More / most importantly

Moreover

On top of that

What is more