Is transference of an idea expressed by a definite grammatical category in the SL by a different grammatical category of the TL.

Substitution is a universal and widely used translation device.

It is used at the level of parts of speech and at the level of parts of sentence.

Substitution at the level of parts of speech.

· The most common is replacing English nouns (“Nomina Agentis”) by Ukrainian verbs. Most English (verbal) nouns are substituted for (finite) verbs in Ukrainian and Russian. It is objectively predetermined by the difference in the quantitative representation of nouns and verbs in the source and target languages. The quantitative representation of verbs in Ukrainian by far exceeds that in English.

E.g.1: He is an early riser = He rises early = Він рано встає

E.g.2: She is a good dancer = She dances well= Вона гарно танцює.

E.g.3: He’s not a terribly good mixer.

Він не дуже гарно сходиться з людьми.

E.g.4: I’m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing… (J.Salinger)

По-перше, я палю, як паровоз.

· Common enough is the replacement of adjectives (transferred epithets) which syntactically express attributive relations while semantically they express adverbial relations by adverbs:

E.g.1: At the age of 18 Charles earned an honest living.

…Чарльз чесно заробляв собі на життя.

E.g.2: Lord Nesby stretched a careless hand.

Лорд Несбі байдуже (недбало) простягнув руку.

This kind of substitution is used to make the sentence sound absolutely Ukrainian and semantically transparent.

· adjectives derived from geographical names are substituted for nounsand vice versa:

E.g.1: The French president – президент Франції;

The British Government – уряд Британії;

Congolese Embassy – посольство Конго.

E.g.2: But I fear the Indians of Cleveland (Hemingway).

Боюсь, щоб їх не побили клівлендські індіанці.

Alongside such substitutions the place of the attribute is changed too.

· adjectives used as the predicative are substituted for verbs(more often than not):

E.g.1: He was cross with me. – Він сердився на мене.

E.g.2: She was silent. – Вона мовчала.

E.g.3: The boy was sad too… (Hemingway)

Та й хлопець тоді засмутився

· adjectives in the comparative degree are replaced by verbal nouns:

E.g.: The workers demanded higher wages.

Робітники вимагали підвищення зарплатні.

?(Other cases: An attempted coup in Greece – Спроба військового перевороту у Греції. The English participial “attempted” is replaced by the Ukrainian noun “спроба”; similarly the English phrase: “increased military spending” is translated “збільшення воєнних витрат”)

 

· In many a case replacements are stylistically predetermined:

E.g.1: She nodded her head and smiled (J.London).

Рут, посміхнувшись, кивнула головою.

E.g.2: For a moment I suspected that he was pulling my leg, but a glance at him convinced me otherwise (Fitzgerald).

Я навіть подумав був, чи не дурить він мене, але глянувши на нього, перконався, що це не так.

 

E.g.3: She [Irene] has remained faithful to memory (Galsworthy).

Вона зберігає вірність минулому.

E.g.4: We fight to live (Hemingway).

Ми боремось за життя.

Thus, substitution may be employed not only to make a sense unit semantically more transparent but also to make it sound stylistically more natural:

E.g.5: “An industrial accident”, the doctor said (Hemingway)

– Нещасний випадок на заводі, – сказав доктор.

 

· Substitution (replacement) is sometimes the only way of adjusting the English peculiar way of expression to literary Ukrainian.

E.g.1: Piggy looked up miserably from the dawn-pale beach to the dark mountains (W.Golding).

Роха перевів нещасний погляд зі світанково-блідого берега на темну гору.

 

E.g.2: Madame Heron left today Monsieur suddenly, about three o’clock. There was illness in her family (Galsworthy)

Мадам Ерон виїхала сьогодні, мосьє – раптово, біля третьої години. Захворів хтось із її родичів.

· Substitution is almost always employed when dealing with asyndetic substantial clusters:

E.g.: …was seated at the breakfast table (C.Doyle)

… сидів за столом і снідав.

Substitution at the level of parts of the sentence:

· When in the English sentence the predicate is expressed by the verb in the passive voice and the doer of the action is known, then very often in the translation of such a sentence the subject becomes the object and vice versa (the object becomes the subject):

E.g.1: The door was opened by Jack.= Jack opened the door = Двері відчинив Джек.

E.g.2: Catherine Barkley was greatly liked by the nurses because she would do night duty indefinitely (Hemingway)

Госпітальні сестри дуже полюбили Кетрін Барклі, бо вона ладна була перебрати на себе всі нічні чергування.

 

E.g.3: Minutes later, it seemed I was awakened by someone shaking me (H.Lee)

Здавалося, минуло всього кілька хвилин, а мене уже хтось торсав за плечі.

This transformation is predetermined by the quantitative representation of the passive voice constructions in English, which by far exceeds that in Ukrainian.

· The subject expressed by a noun that has no meaning Nomina Agentis(denotingthe doer of action)becomes an adverbial modifierof time, place etc in the translation of such sentences as:

E.g.1: – Last year saw many political events.

Минулого року відбулося багато політичних подій.

E.g.2: – The jet-airliner carried 78 passengers.

На борту реактивного літака знаходилось 78 пасажирів.

It is caused by the difference in the lexical valency between the source language syntaxeme “subject+predicate”, where the subject is expressed by such a noun, and that of Ukrainian.

?In English a number of nouns which have no meaning Nomina Agentis are used in the construction subject+predicate, denoting the doer of the action, while in Russian/ Ukrainian the use of such a construction is restricted lexically. That’s why it’s necessary to substitute the construction “Subject+Predicate” for the construction “Predicate+Adverbial Modifier” or “Adverbial Modifier+Predicate”:

E.g.3: The strike closed most of the schools in New York.

У результаті страйку було закрито більшість шкіл у Нью Йорку.

E.g.4: The air crash killed 106 people.

В результаті авіакатастрофи загинуло 106 людей.

E.g.5: The war saw terrible destruction on the island.

Під час війни на острові відбулися сильні руйнування.

E.g.6: The second grade was grim (H.Lee)

У другому класі було сумно і нудно.

The same transformation takes place when we deal with cliches typical of English newspaper (stock phrases):

E.g.: The communiqué says… – У комюніке говориться…

The resolution declares … – У резолюції сказано…

The note strongly protests…. – У ноті виражається рішучий протест…


ADDITION

implies supplementing some elements in the TL version to adequately render the meaning of the source language utterance.

Addition is semantically and stylistically predetermined. It is often used to compensate for the absence in the TL of some SL grammatical category, to fill out SL elliptical expressions, to amplify implications. Additions in translation from English into Ukrainian stem from differences in the syntactic structure of these languages.

Addition is caused by:

· differences in the structure of sentences: English constructions with complex object and complex subject are extended into a subordinate clause in Ukrainian.

E.g.1: – She had only to express a wish for him to fulfill (Maugham).

– Варто було їй тільки виголосити якесь своє бажання, він негайно є ж виконував його. (for+the infinitive Construction)

 

E.g.2: – There was no room for us to sit down (Galsworthy)

Не було місця, де можна було б сісти.

 

· the need to compensate for the equivalent lackinggrammar forms and categories.

It happens very often when we translate words formed with the help of conversion.

E.g.1: – The roads were sentinelled by oaks.

Обабіч дороги, ніби вартові (мов на варті), стояли дуби.

E.g.2: – The peace campaign has snowballed rapidly.

Кампанія боротьби за мир швидко набрала широкого розмаху (масштабів).

E.g. 3: . – Dr. Courtras was startled by it and amazed. And he was awed. (Maugham)

Його охопило благоговійне почуття. .

E.g.4: – The country had to establish whole new industries which did not exist before.

Країні довелося створювати нові галузі промисловості, які не існували раніше.

Addition is caused here by the absence of the corresponding form of the noun “industries” in the TL.

· differences in norms of word combinability (lexical valency):

E.g.1: – It was customary for the men in the family to remain on Simon’s homestead, Finch’s Landing, and make their living from cotton (H.Lee).

Так уже повелося, що чоловіки в нашій родині осідали на фермі в Саймона, “Пристань Фінча”, і жили там з того, що вирощували бавововник.

E.g.2: – The new American secretary of State has proposed a world conference on foodsupplies.

Новий державний секретар США запропонував скликатиконференціюз питаньпродовльчих ресурсів.

 

They become necessary here in order to maintain the peculiar way of expression in Ukrainian.

· “compression” of English sentences that are extended (decompressed) in the process of translation for the sake of more adequate and explicit expression:

E.g.: He shrugged the stare off.

У відповідь на її пильний погляд він презирливо знизав плечима.

It often concerns cases when the translator has to handle a non-causative verb used in the typical causative complex(to beckon, to wave, to help).Preserving its basic meaning the verb acquires an additional causative sense.

E.g.1: He waved her into a car.

Він дав їй знак рукою, щоб вона сіла у машину.

E.g.2: He helped him into the car.

Він допоміг йому сісти в машину.

Such English structures are usually formed with the prepositions “into” and “out of”.

· the necessity to take into consideration pragmatics of translationwhen dealing with specifically national notions (realia, proper nouns, geographic names) to amplify implications.

For example, translating into Ukrainian local place names, it is necessary to add such words as штат, місто, округ etc:

E.g.: – “Where you girls from?” I asked her again… “Seattle, Washington…” (J.Salinger)

“Звідкіля ви приїхали? – З Сіеттла, штат Вашингтон.

Thus what is implicit in the English sentence becomes explicit in the translation.

Additions often become necessary to clarify the meaning of some SNN of the SLin the TL : E.g.: – It was Friday and soon they’d go out and get drunk (J.Brain “Room at the Top”)

Була п’ятниця,день зарплатні, невдовзі ці люди вийдуть на вулицю і нап’ються (рос. переклад Т.Кудрявцевої та Т.Озерської)

 

It was necessary to use the additional words in the TL version as the Ukrainian reader as a rule doesn’t know that English workers get their wages every week on Fridays.

· Additions are resorted to with the aim of achieving some stylistic effect (the necessary expressiveness).

OMISSION

is leaving out some elements in the TL version as superfluous.

The phenomenon of redundancy is typical mostly of English. Redundant elements in a sentence may be expressed by a word, word combination or a phrase: In Ukrainian redundant elements are used mainly as a stylistic device that of pleonasm: чорна сажа, бачити на власні очі. Thus the redundant elements are as often as not omitted in the Ukrainian version.

· Omissions are conditioned first of all by the absence of the corresponding grammar phenomena in the TL (auxiliary verbs in some constructions, articles or pronouns etc.).

E.g.1: He spat on the ground and shook his head (Hemingway).

Він плюнув і похитав головою.

 

E.g.2: She helped him with his English, corrected his pronunciation, and started him on arithmetic.

Вона допомагала йому в англійській мові, виправляла вимову й учила арифметики.

 

· When translating paired (pairs of) synonyms with identical or very close meaning:

 

E.g.1: The treaty was declared null and void.

Договір було оголошено недійсним (анульовано).

E.g.2: The garden was old and cosy, with plenty of nooks and corners (A.Christie)

Сад був старий і затишний з великою кількістю потаємних куточків.

 

· A sense unit may be omitted in the language of translation for stylistic reasons (subjectively introduced), for example, to avoid unnecessary repetition (smth that is obvious or smth mentioned in the preceding part)

 

E.g.: She turned aghast towards the bed.

Вона з жахом обернулася. (the bed was mentioned in the previous sentence)

Casual subjective omissions usually do not change the general content of the sentence/ passage though they may alter to some extent the author’s emphasis made in the sentence of the source language. (!The main thing here is to avoid sense losses).

 


REDUCTION(стягнення, скорочення)