DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF PRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
Lecture 6
PHRASEOLOGY
Phraseology is a branch of lexicology which makes a study of stereotyped word-combinations or phraseological unites.
All word- combinations are divided in free, semi-free and fixed.
Combinations in which one of the members is substituted for another word without causing any changes in the meaning of other component of the word – combination is called free. (to work quickly, to work slowly).
In semi-free combinations substitution is also possible but it is limited (to go to school, to go to college).
Fixed expressions are called phraseological units or set expressions.Set expressions are word-combinations of ready made nature with fixed word order.
Different sources of phraseological units:
- nature: out of blue, as welcome as snow in May
- human activity: fair play
- mythology: Adam’s apple, the apple of discord
- connecting with the Bible: the prodigal son
- folklore: peeping Tom
- literature: green eyed monster (jealousy)
Opinions differ as to which stable word-combinations are to be regarded as phraseological units Academician V.Vinogradov refers to phraseology those stable word-combinations in which the meaning of one element depends of the other. Professor A.Smirnitskv considers phraseology to study stable word-combinations which possess expressiveness or emotional colouring. N.Amosovo defines phraseological unites as unites of fixed context.
The most characteristic features of phraseological unites are:
• stability,
• fixed and ready made nature,
• the integration of two or more words into a unit functioning as a whole
Some features which make phaseological units easily remembered and reproduced are following:
- euphonic rhyme, rhythm, alliteration: save and sound
- images created with help of methaphors, similies, irony: as blind as bat, as cool as cucumber, as strong as horse
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF PRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
English and American linguists treat phraseological unites from the viewpoint of applied linguistics. They confine themselves to compiling dictionaries of idioms. At the same time theoretical questions remain uncovered.
Russian and Ukrainian scholars made a considerable contribution to the study of phraseology. There are different classifications of phraseological unites:
• Semantic
• Grammatic
• Genetic
• Linguistic
• Stylistic
Vinogradov's classification is semantic It is based on the relationship between the meaning of the whole and its components. According to the degree of motivation phraseological unites may be dividedinto threegroups:
• phraseological fusions
• phraseological unities
• phraseological collocations
Phraseological fusions are non-motivated word-combinations They represent the highest degree of blending their components which have lost their independent lexical meaning. In fusions the metaphoric meaning of the word-combination is no longer felt to dance attendance on smb., red tape, to cut the Gordian knot etc. Archaic meanings often survive in fusions and it is natural for their components have lost everyconnection with their etymological 'relatives’ and live a life of their own.
Phraseological unities are motivated. Their meaning is based on the metaphoricmeaning of the whole word-combination (to wash one's dirty linen in public, to play first fiddle)
Phraseological collocations are clearly motivated. Their meaning is equal to sum of meanings of their components. One component is usually used in its direct meaning while the other is usedmetaphorically (to meet the demands, to make a mistake). In phraseological collocations variability of their components is limited, e.g. to hear a grudge (malice/ hut to take a liking (fancy).
Smirnitsky analyses phraseological unites from thepoint of view of functional approach. Phraseological unites are treated as wordcombinations functioning as word-equivalents. Prof Smirnitsky divides stable word-combinations into three groups:
1. Traditional phrases whose meaning does not correspond to one notioncan be derived fromthe meaning of the components (to shrug one’ s shoulders)
2. Phraseolouical combinations whosemetaphoric combination is passed and which are emotionally and stylistically neutral, veryoften serving as the name of the concept (to get up, to fall in love).
3. Idioms are emotionally and stylistically coloured, always having some neutral synonyms (as dead as a doornail, to lake the bull by the horns).
Pr. Cunin’s approach is notional and functional. It depends on functions which phraseological units perform in communication.
1 class is nominative phraseological units those we name people, qualities, things, circumstances. (salt-of-the earth - people).
2. nominative communicative phraseological units which names actions and processes. (to gild the pill).
3. communicative phraseological units which are sentences by form (all is well that ends well).
4. interjectional phraseological units which do not name anything but are used to express different feelings and emotions. (good heavens, a pretty cattle of fish).
Questions for Self-Control:
1.What does phraseology study?
2.What are the most characteristic features of phraseological utiles?
3.How many approaches to the classification of phraseological units do you
know?
Lecture 7
AMERICAN AND BRITISH ENGLISH
Each language has standard norms at every level of its hierarchy but the concept of norm is abstract and in real communication it’s realized through varieties.
A variety of language existing in oral form only and spoken within a certain territory is called a local dialect.
There 5 groups of local dialect on the territory of Great Britain: northern, eastern, southern, western, midland.
The status of Scottish, Australian and etc. “English” isn’t dialect but it is not separate language. These varieties can’t be called dialects since they have literally norms, literature is written in them and some of them even have dialects of their own. We cannot call them separate language since the majority of words and gramophones coincide in them. They are viewed now as national variants of English language.
There are some factors that predetermine common features among national variants:
1. Common source of the British language of 17-18th century
2. Common dialectal basis
3. Orientation to British English due to its high social prestige
4. Common stages that national variants had passed in their development: adaptation to new conditions, formation of the national variant and functioning as separate variant
Factors which predetermine differences:
1. local, ethnic, social, cultural, economic conditions
2. distances between the colonies and the metropolises
3. frequency of contacts
4. influence of other languages
The question is if the English and Americans speak the same language or two different languages. The hypothesis of so-called 'American language' has had several supporters in the USA.
There is no doubt that the vocabulary used by American speakers has certain features of its own: there are groups of words which belong to American vocabulary exclusively. These words are called Americanisms. They can be divided into several groups:
1 Historical Americanisms (Amer. fall - Br. autumn, to guess - to think)
2. Proper Americanisms - the group of words which have no equivalence in British English and are mainly connected with cultural differences (blue-grass, eggplant, red cedar etc.). Later Proper Americanisms are represented by names of objects which are called differently in the USA and in England (Br. candy - Amer. sweets, Br. luggage - Amer. baggage).
3 American shortenings (auto, gym, movies).
4. American vocabulary is reach in borrowings. There is a group of specifically American borrowings which reflect contacts of the Americans with other nations on the American continent (ranch, sombrero, wigwam, war path)
Another group of differences is connected with grammar peculiarities:
1)the use of the auxiliary verb will in the first person singular and plural of the Future Indefinite Tense, in contrast to the British normative shall,
2)a tendency to substitute the Past Indefinite Tense for the Present Perfect Tense, especially in oral communication;
3)the usage of old form of the past Participle of the verb to get : to get - got -gotten.
American English is marked by certain phonetic peculiarities.
Br [a: ]- Am.[ae] Br. [- ]- Am. [ r ]
ask meter
grass car
answer bar
There are also some specificities in spelling:
I) simplified version in American English:
Br. colour-color metre-meter defence - defense
favour -favor centre - center practice - practise
honour - honor fibre - fiber offence - offense
to enfold - to infold judgement -judgment
to encrust - to incrust abridgement - abridgment
to empanel - to impanel acknowledgement - acknowledgment
cheque - check
catalogue-catalog
2) sometimes Americans avoid doubling of the letter ‘l’ and 'm':
Br. travelling — traveling programme - program
marvellous - marvelous gramm - gram
woollen —woolen
jewellery – jewelery
3) the replacement of the letter 'z'
Br. advertize - advertise emphasize – emphasise
Questions for Self-Control:
1. Do the English and the American people speak the same language?
2. Which words arc called Americanisms?
3. What grammar and phonetic peculiarities of American English do you know?
4. What are the specificities in spelling?