Discovery of Archimedes’ Tomb
Early Works
While working in the patent office, Einstein’s four papers were published in the Annalen der Physik, the leading German physics journal. These papers have come to be known as Annus Mirabilis Papers. His papers were based on photoelectric effect, Brownian movement, electrodynamics and mass-energy equivalence. At the age of 26, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. In 1910, he wrote a paper on critical opalescence, thereby explaining why the sky is blue. During 1909, Einstein wrote another paper, this time explaining the photon concept.
In 1911, Einstein became an associate professor at the University of Zurich and soon, was a full professor at the Charles University of Prague. Here, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. In 1912, he accepted professorship at ETH and in 1915, published a paper on general theory of relativity. In 1917, Einstein published an article on stimulated emission as well as a paper on the cosmological constant.
Fame
In 1919, Einstein’s gravitational deflection theory was confirmed by a team led by British astronomer. This won worldwide acclaim for Einstein and he became extremely famous. With this, he got an entry of in the scientific community, which was resented by many. In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, for his contribution to Theoretical Physics and especially, for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.
However, as per his settlement with his wife, he gave the Nobel Prize money to Melvic on their divorce. Einstein wanted to generalize his theory of gravitation in order to unify and simplify the fundamental laws of physics, particularly gravitation and electromagnetism. Though he was highly appreciated for his works in theoretical physics, with time, he started becoming isolated and unsuccessful in his research.
Death
Einstein died on April 18, 1955, due to internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an aortic aneurysm, which had previously been diagnosed and reinforced. The legendary scientist died in Princeton Hospital, at the age of 76, but worked till the very end. His remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered. Just before the cremation, Princeton Hospital pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation, without the permission of his family. He hoped that the neuroscience of the future might someday be able to find out what made Einstein so intelligent.
Answer the following questions:
| 1. Who was Albert Einstein? 2. What is he famous for? 3. Where was he born? | 4. What inventions did he make? 5. What were his theories? 6. How did he die? |
Alfred Noble
Born on:October 21, 1833
Born in:Stockholm, Sweden
Nationality:Swedish
Career:Chemist, Engineer, Innovator, Armaments Manufacturer and the Inventor of Dynamite
Death:December 10, 1896
Alfred Noble is more popularly known as the inventor of dynamite. Swedish by origin, he was a chemist, engineer, innovator as well as an armaments manufacturer. He even owned Bofors, a major armaments manufacturer, which was previously an iron and steel mill. Noble is accredited for laying the foundation of Noble prize distribution amongst people, for their significant contribution to various fields. As a form of commemoration, the synthetic element ‘nobelium’ was named after him.
Childhood
Alfred Noble was born as ‘Alfred Bernard Noble’ on 21st October 1833, in Stockholm, Sweden. He was the third son of Immanuel Nobel and Andriette Ahlsell Nobel. In 1842, he moved with his family to St. Petersburg, where his father started torpedo works. His father was the inventor of modern plywood. After the bankruptcy of the family business, Alfred returned to Sweden and started studying explosives, especially the safe manufacture and use of nitroglycerine. This led to several explosions at their family-owned factory in Heleneborg. One of them, which occurred in 1864, was so disastrous that it killed his younger brother Emil as well as many workers.
Discovery of Dynamite
Noble discovered that when nitroglycerine was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like kieselguhr, it became safer and more convenient to handle it. He got this mixture patented as dynamite in 1867. In the same year, he demonstrated his explosive for the first time, at a quarry in Redhill, Surrey, England. Later, he combined nitroglycerine with another explosive called gun - cotton. This gave him a jelly-like substance, which was more powerful than dynamite. He patented it in 1876, with the name Gelignite or Blasting Gelatin.
Foundation of Nobel Prize
On 27th November 1895, Nobel signed his last will and testament, at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris. In the will, he set aside a considerable amount of his estate for the establishment of the Noble Prizes. These accolades were to be given to eminent people, irrespective of the nationality, T for their contribution in different fields, such as physical science, chemistry and medical science or physiology; literary work and peace projects.
Death
Alfred Noble died of a heart stroke at Sanremo, Italy, on 10th December 1896. The fortune he left behind to fund the Noble Prizes amounted to 31 million kronor. Nobel is buried in Norra begravningsplatsen, in Stockholm. He also wrote Nemesis, a prose tragedy in four acts about Beatrice Cenci, partly inspired by Percy Bysshe Shelley's The Cenci, which was printed while he was dying. Though the entire stock was destroyed after his death, a remaining edition was published in Sweden, in 2003.
Answer the following questions:
1. Who was Alfred Noble?
2. What is he famous for?
3. Where was he born?
4. What fields did he work in?
5. What were his theories?
6. How did he die?
Archimedes
Birth: c. 287 BC
Born in: Syracuse, Sicily
Nationality: Greek
Career: Mathematician, Physicist, Engineer, Inventor, Astronomer
Death: c. 212 BC
Archimedes is the name of a Greek mathematician who lived from c. 287 BC to c. 212 BC, but is remembered by people till date. He was a multi-faceted individual, who was also involved in works of physics, engineering, inventions and astronomy. A noted scientist, he is mainly known for designing innovative machines, apart from making progress in physics, which served as the foundation of hydrostatics, statics as well as the principle of the lever. Though he made as much progress in mathematics as in the science, the former achievements are not so well known.
Childhood
Archimedes was born c. 287 BC, in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily. Though there are little records of his birth, the year of his birth has been estimated on a statement by John Tzetzes, the Byzantine Greek historian, in which he said that Archimedes lived for 75 years. Archimedes father was Phidias (as per his statement in ‘The Sand Reckoner’), an astronomer, about whom nothing is known. Plutarch, a Greek historian, had stated in ‘Parallel Lives’ that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the ruler of Syracuse. Apart from the fact that Archimedes lived in Syracuse, there is hardly any information on his childhood.
Later Life and Death
There was only one record of the life of Archimedes, the biography written by his friend Heracleides. With the work getting lost, the world is largely in dark about the details of the great scientist’s life. It is believed that he studied in Alexandria, Egypt, along with Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Whether he ever married or had children is not known. Even the information on Conon and Eratosthenes was available through his works, including The Method of Mechanical Theorems and the Cattle Problem.
Though it is known that Archimedes died around 212 BC, during the Second Punic War, the sequence of events leading to his death is obscure. One of the versions of Plutarch tells us that a Roman soldier killed him, when the latter refused to obey the order to meet General Marcellus. Another lesser-known version by Plutarch says that Archimedes died while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier. The last words attributed to Archimedes are "Do not disturb my circles", though there is no reliable evidence of the same.
Discovery of Archimedes’ Tomb
Cicero was a Roman orator who had heard stories about the tomb of Archimedes. As he went in search of it, he realized that none of the locals was able to provide the exact location. After much search, he finally found the tomb in 75 BC, near the Agrigentine gate, in Syracuse. He then got the tomb, which was in a neglected and dilapidated condition, cleaned and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses, added as inscription. The tomb also carried a sculpture that illustrated Archimedes’ his favorite mathematical proof, that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two thirds that of the cylinder, including its bases.
Answer the following questions:
1. Who was Archimedes?
2. What is he famous for?
3. Where was he born?
4. What inventions did he make?
5. What were his theories?
6. How did he die?
Benjamin Franklin
Born on: January 17, 1706
Born in: Boston, Massachusetts
Nationality: American
Career: Author, Printer, Satirist, Political Theorist, Politician, Scientist, Inventor, Civic Activist, Statesman and Diplomat
Died on: April 17, 1790
Benjamin Franklin was an American author and printer, satirist, political theorist, politician, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman and diplomat. He is credited as being one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America as well as a major figure in the Enlightenment. Franklin is known, throughout the world, for inventing lightning rod, bifocals, the Franklin stove, a carriage odometer and a musical instrument. He also laid down the foundation of the first public lending library in America as well as the first fire department in Pennsylvania.
Early Life
After leaving his brother’s apprenticeship, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and started working in several printer shops. Sometime later, he went to London and worked as a compositor in a printer's shop in the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great, in the Smithfield area of London. In 1726, he returned to Philadelphia, with the help of Thomas Denham, a merchant. The following year, he created the Junto, a discussion group of concurring aspiring artisans and tradesmen, for pondering over issues of the day.
The members of Junto started a library, funded by the monetary resources pooled by members. It was this library that later led to the birth of the Library Company, with the charter of the Library Company of Philadelphia, created in 1731 by Franklin. In the early years of its formation, the books of the company were kept in the homes of the librarians. It was only in 1739 that the entire collection was shifted to second floor of the State House of Pennsylvania (now Independence Hall).
In 1791, a new building was built specifically for the library. Today, the library houses 500,000 rare books, pamphlets and broadsides, along with more than 160,000 manuscripts and 75,000 graphic items. Coming back to Franklin, he had set up his own printing house by 1730 and also started publishing a newspaper, called ‘The Pennsylvania Gazette’. It was with Gazette only that he got an opportunity to campaign against local reforms and initiatives, through printed essays and observations.
As time passed and more and more of his observations were published, Franklin gained social respect. Franklin established a common-law marriage with Deborah Read on 1st September 1730. The next year, he was initiated into the local Freemason lodge. By 1734, he had reached the position of a grand master. The same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson's Constitutions of the Free-Masons. Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.
Career as Inventor
Franklin is known for making a number of inventions and discoveries, during his life. Amongst the most popular one are the lightning rod, the glass harmonica, the Franklin stove, bifocal glasses and the flexible urinary catheter. He was the one who charted the ‘Gulf Stream’, along with Timothy Folger, his cousin and Nantucket whaler captain, and other ship captains. In 1743, Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society, with the aim of helping the men associated with scientific research, to discuss their discoveries and theories.
It was Franklin who proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (i.e. electricity). Rather, he argued them to be the same electrical fluid, though under different pressures, and labeled them as positive (vitreous) and negative (resinous). He was the first to propose the principle of conservation of charge. In 1750, Franklin published a proposal for an experiment that would prove that lightning is nothing, but electricity. Though he never performed it, he did prove the statement through other experiments. The principle of refrigeration was another one of his works.
Answer the following questions: 1. Who was Benjamin Franklin? 2. What is he famous for? 3.Where was he born? 4. What did he make? 5. What were his theories?
Galileo Galilei
Born on: February 15, 1564
Born in: Pisa (then part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany)
Nationality: Italian
Career: Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, Philosopher
Death: January 8, 1642
Galileo, known as the ‘Father of Modern Physics’ or ‘Father of Modern Science’, was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. He is one of the persons who played a major role in the scientific revolution. Amongst his most notable works till date are improvements to the telescope and the consequential astronomical observations. He discovered the four largest satellites of Jupiter and also observed and analyzed sunspots. Applied science and technology are the other areas in which Galileo worked. He supported Copernicanism and also proved the concept of heliocentrism.
Galileo published an account of his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter in 1610. He used these observations to support the concept of the sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe. The following year, he went to Rome and demonstrated his telescope to the influential philosophers and mathematicians of the Jesuit Collegio Romano. He did this to prove his observation of the four moons of Jupiter. Galileo was also made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei, while he was in Rome. It was in 1612 that his concept of sun-centered solar system was opposed.
Two years later, in 1614, Father Tommaso Caccini criticized Galileo's opinions on the motion of the Earth, from the pulpit of Santa Maria Novella. He went a step further, to term them as dangerous and close to heterodoxy. In order to defend himself against these accusations, Rome decided to visit Rome. However, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino met him in 1616 and personally handed him an admonition. It asked him to refrain from advocating or teaching the Copernican astronomy.
Scientific Methods
Galileo is credited with pioneering the use of quantitative experiments. The results of his experiments could be analyzed with mathematical accuracy. He is believed to be the first person who clearly stated that the laws of nature are mathematical. For his time, Galileo showed an amazingly modern appreciation of the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, & experimental physics. He comprehended the concept of parabola, in terms of both conic sections and the ordinate (y), varying as the square of abscissa (x).
During his time, Galileo claimed that parabola was the theoretically-ideal trajectory for uniformly accelerated motion, in the absence of friction and other disturbances. However, he also said that the theory will apply only in case of laboratory-scale and battlefield-scale trajectories. He admitted that it could not be applied to a trajectory the size of a planet. He also recognized that his experimental data would never agree exactly with any theoretical or mathematical form, owing to ambiguous measurement, irreducible friction, etc.
Astronomy
In 1608, Galileo, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. In the later years, he improved the telescope, to make one with up to about 32x magnification, which is now known as terrestrial telescope, or spyglass. His telescoep was used by merchants, for their shipping businesses and trading issues. In March 1610, he published a short treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), in which he provided his initial telescopic astronomical observations. The same year, he discovered the four moons of Jupiter, which he named as the ‘Medicean stars’. Galileo later observed the phases of Venus and proved that it orbited the Sun. With this, he lent support to (but did not prove) the heliocentric model of Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe and recognize sunspots. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of Charlemagne. He reported lunar mountains and craters for the first time and also estimated the mountains' heights from observations about the patterns of light and shadow on the Moon's surface. Apart from that, he observed the Milky Way and a number of other, distant stars also.
Answer the following questions:1. Who was Galileo Galilei?2. What is he famous for?3. Where was he born?4. What fields did he work in?5. What were his theories?6. How did he die?
Isaac Newton
Born on:June 4, 1643 (actual)
Born in:Lincolnshire, England
Died on:31 March, 1727
Nationality:English
Career:Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, Natural Philosopher, Alchemist and Theologian
Isaac Newton was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist and theologian. He made invaluable contribution to the field of science. His ‘Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica’, published in 1687, is considered to be the most influential book in the history of science. Apart from Physics, he made contributions in the fields of Mathematics, Astronomy, Alchemy and Theology as well. Such was his reputation, that in a 2005 poll of the Royal Society, Newton was voted much more influential than Albert Einstein.
His Works
Though Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently, Newton did not publish anything about his works until 1693, for the fear of being mocked. On the other hand, Leibniz continuously published his findings. Newton is credited for discovering Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables) and even made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences. He is known to be the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations.
Newton also used and reverted the power series for the first time. He even discovered a new formula for calculating pi. In 1699, the members of the Royal society accused Leibniz of plagiarism and Newton was declared the true discoverer of the theory. From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics and investigated the refraction of light, making white light split into colors, through a prism and vice versa. This gave rise to Newton’s theory of color. He even made a refracting telescope, based on the same principle.
In 1677, Newton again started working on mechanics. In 1687, he published his work ‘Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica’, wherein he stated the three universal laws of motion. He even defined the law of universal gravitation and the first analytical determination based on Boyle’s Law. With this, he got international popularity. The list of his admirers included Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he shared an intense relationship until 1693. The end of this friendship led Newton to a nervous breakdown.
Other Involvements
In 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts, associated with the interpretation of Bible. He devoted a great deal of time to alchemy. He was also a Member of Parliament of England, from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701. In 1696, he moved to London, to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint. Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon Lucas' death in 1699, a position Newton held until his death. Newton was also made the President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences.
Death
The legendary soul died in London, on 31st March 1727. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Newton did not marry and did not have any children. Though he gave away much of his estate to his relatives, he died intestate. After Newton died, his body was discovered to contain a large amount of mercury. It is believed to have been the result of his alchemical pursuits. Moreover, mercury poisoning is also believed to be responsible for oddity in Newton’s later life.
Answer the following questions:
1. Who was Isaac Newton?
2. What is he famous for?
3. Where was he born?
4. What inventions did he make?
5. What were his theories?
6. How did he die?
Leonardo da Vinci
Born on: April 15, 1452
Born in:Vinci, Italy
Profile: Artist, Inventor, Scientist
Disciple of: Verrochhio
Famous Paintings: The Last Supper, Mona Lisa
Famous Competitor: Michelangelo
Death: 2 May, 1519
Simply put, Leonardo da Vinci was an amazing man. He was an accomplished painter, a great inventor who designed a slew of stunning things, and a path-breaking scientist who was a bridge between the medieval times and modern approach. Particularly known for his masterly pieces The Last Supper and Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci was a genius, of all times. Here is the short biography and profile of Leonardo da Vinci.
Leonardo as Artist
Leonardo, a God-gifted artist, had his skills honed at the workshop of Verocchio. With time, he surpassed his master. By the time Leonardo reaching his twenties, he became a famous painter. Leonardo sought a universal language in painting. With realistic elements, Leonardo created faithful renditions of life. Leonardo's decision to paint things realistically was bold, for the times were dominated by highly figurative and downright strange religious paintings. He became a beacon for the painters of the coming century.
Leonardo gave his paintings the soft, lifelike quality that made older paintings look inferior. With his genius, Leonardo created atmosphere and depth in his paintings. Leonardo turned to science for improving his artwork. His knowledge of nature and anatomy emerged in his stunningly realistic paintings. His drawings of human body paved the way for remarkably accurate figures. Leonardo believed that a painter must know not just the rules of perspective, but also the laws of nature. Painter is the best person to illustrate the laws of nature.
Two of his most famous paintings are Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. Mona Lisa is known for her mysterious smile while The Last Supper is praised for experimental technique. Michelangelo, another great artist, was the competitor of Leonardo.
Leonardo as Inventor
For supporting himself, Leonardo adapted his drawing skills to the fields of architecture, military engineering, canal building and weapons design. A talented engineer, Leonardo planned to create new machines for a new world. All his life, he nurtured brilliant and far-reaching ideas, ranging from the practical to the prophetic. He proposed creating a dry route across the Gulf of Istanbul, connecting the Golden Horn and the Bosporus with a bridge! Though the project was not taken up at that time, modern engineers have determined that the bridge would have been completely sound. Such was Leonardo’s genius.
An array of Leonardo designs were based on gear. His designs included the bicycle, a helicopter, an auto-mobile, and some strange weapons. He made plans for a device to measure humidity, a steam-powered cannon, different waterwheels, and industrial machines powered by flowing water. He made some ambitious plans to revitalize Milan with canals.
Leonardo as Scientist
As a scientist, major contribution of Leonardo was bridging the gap between the medieval times and modern way of doing things. His studies in anatomy and fluids proved his predecessors wrong. The range of topics which he studied is surprising: anatomy, zoology, botany, geology, optics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics and much more. Leonardo was influenced by the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans. However, he knew the limitations of these and took the approach of observing nature and posing logical questions. Leonardo possessed the ability to observe nature and record it. His studies heralded the birth of the systematic, descriptive method of scientific study.
Answer the following questions:
1. Who was Leonardo da Vinci?2. What is he famous for?3. Where was he born?4.What inventions did he make?5. What were his theories?6.How did he die?
Louis Pasteur
Born on: December 27, 1822
Born in: Dole, in Jura region of France
Nationality: French
Career: Chemist and Microbiologist
Death: September 28, 1895
Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist, after whom the process of pasteurization has been named. He was the one who invented pasteurization, the process of heating a liquid, especially milk , to a temperature between 55 and 70 degrees C to destroy harmful bacteria without materially changing the composition, flavor, or nutritive value of the liquid. Apart from that, he made breakthroughs in identifying the causes and methods of prevention in case of various diseases. Pasteur is also credited with working towards dropping the mortality rate from puerperal fever (childbed). Along with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, Pasteur is regarded as the founder of microbiology. Pasteur also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry.
Childhood
Louis Pasteur was born as ‘Louis Jean Pasteur’ on 27th December 1822, in Dole, which is in the Jura region of France. He was the son of Jean Pasteur, a weakly educated tanner and a decorated Sergeant-Major of the Grande Armee. Though he was born in Dole, he spent the majority of his childhood in the town of Arbois. It was Pasteur’s college headmaster who recognized his extraordinary talent and aptitude. In fact, he also advised Pasteur to apply for the École Normale Supérieure. Pasteur did follow his advice and managed to gain admission in the elite institution.
Career
Pasteur was interested in chemistry and microbiology since a very young age. His first notable work in chemistry came in 1849, when he resolved a problem related to the nature of tartaric acid. He deduced the reason why there was no polarizing effect on the light, in case of tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis. With this, he became the first person to demonstrate chiral molecules and also attracted the attention of M. Puillet. In 1854, Pasteur became the Dean of the new Faculty of Sciences in Lille. Two year later, he was made Administrator & Director of scientific studies, in École Normale Supérieure.
In the field of microbiology, Pasteur is credited with developing vaccines for a number of diseases. Amongst his most notable works has been the vaccine for cholera, which was the result of injection of chicken with spoiled culture of the responsible bacteria. Later, he applied the same immunization method to anthrax, which affected cattle. The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux, a French doctor who has tested it only on dogs. However, it was Pasteur who, on personal risk, used it on a human, a 9-year old boy. Many other vaccines as well as first of the Pasteur Institutes were later built on this achievement.
Later Years and Death
In 1895, Pasteur was awarded Leeuwenhoek Medal, the highest honor in microbiology. He was also a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor, one of only 75 throughout France. He left for the holy abode, in 1895, the result of a series of strokes that had started in 1868. Pasteur was initially buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. However, later, his remains were re-interred in a crypt in the Institut Pasteur, Paris. His re-interment is an incredibly rare honor in France. This is because, in the country, it is mandatory to be buried in a cemetery. Only 300 "Great Men", including Pasteur, have the honor of being buried elsewhere.
Answer the following questions:
1. Who was Louis Pasteur?
2. What is he famous for?
3. Where was he born?
4. What fields did he work in?
5. What were his theories?
6. How did he die?
Marie Curie
Born on: November 7, 1867
Born in: Warsaw, Poland
Nationality: Polish, French
Career: Physicist and Chemist
Died on: July 4, 1934
Marie Curie was a very renowned physics and chemist, mainly known for being a pioneer in the field of radioactivity. She was the female professor at the University of Paris and till date, is the first and only person honored with Nobel Prizes in two different sciences. Wife of fellow-Nobel-laureate Pierre Curie, she was also the founder of the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw. Though Curie was born and brought up in Poland, she later gained French citizenship. Being proud of her Polish roots, she named the first new chemical element that was discovered by her as "polonium", after her native country.