Vocabulary to be used in discussing a scientific publication 5 страница

4. Have you read any books - scientific or fiction - about cloning?

5. Are there any films where the issue of human cloning comes up?

6. Is cloning a matter of technology, ethics or politics?

 

TEXT

 

CLONING

 

It used to be only in science fiction that the , existence of a race of identical creatures could be imagined: a group of people with exactly the same hair colour, the same features and the same height. However, now this dream - or nightmare - could actually become reality. In theory, the process of creating replicas of any living being seems quite simple. First, a body cell, which contains the specific genes of a living organism, splits in two. The resulting new cells, each containing the same genes, then grow into two new, identical organisms. This process is known as cloning, and it can be applied to humans, animals, insects and plants.

Early experiments with cloning took place using the tadpoles of frogs. In 1968, Dr J.B. Gurdon of Oxford University, England, took an unfertilised frog's egg from a frog - let us call it frog number 1 - and destroyed its nucleus. This meant that he had removed all the genetic information which related to this frog. He then inserted a new nucleus extracted from a cell from another frog number 2. The tadpole which developed from the egg produced by frog number 1 was identical to frog number 2, not to frog number 1! It was not until 1996, however, in Scotland, that a group of British researchers led by Ian Wilmut achieved the successful cloning of an adult animal. The result was Dolly, who has taken her place in the history books as the first lamb to be cloned from the DNA of an adult sheep.

Following the birth of Dolly, both scientists and ordinary people have begun to think about the possibilities of cloning. The latest technology now means that we can remove body cells from the best of our race, the brilliant scientist, the musical genius, the child prodigy, and ensure that the same genes are reproduced in as many babies as we wish. However, cloning does not mean copying.

The process actually takes its name from the Greek word cion which means a twig. A twig has the same genetic information as the tree it comes from, but the two look very different. In the same way, a clone shares the same genes as its donor, but its behaviour and characteristics will be different: personality will always be unique.

Science has provided us with knowledge which seems to have unlimited possibilities. We can not only make designer human beings, but we can also use cloning to improve health. For example, scientists predict that in the future, pigs with organs that could be used in human transplants, could be cloned. Cloning could also enable us to learn more about the embryo and how organisms develop. Cloning could put an end to the risk of extinction of the endangered species on our planet; if animals can be cloned, they need never die out.

However, the process is very controversial. Some people have asked whether a cloned individual would really be a human; would it have a soul? Would there.be relationships and responsibilities between donors and clones? What would be the position of the children of donors in relation to clones? These people are concerned that cloning, or genetic engineering, would interfere with the laws of religion or nature. Others are concerned that it might lead to attempts to alter the features of a particular race and result in a new kind of ethnic cleansing. The fact is that the new opportunities offered by science have always meant that we are faced with new ethical questions. These questions need to be discussed and evaluated before we move ahead.

 

COMPREHENSION

 

Ex. 1. Read the text and choose the best title for each paragraph. There is one title, which you do not need to use.

1. CLONING OF LIVING BEINGS

2. BENEFITS OF CLONING

3. COPYING AND CLONING

4. MORE DISADVANTAGES

5. ETHICAL PROBLEMS

6. POSSIBLE FUTURE

 

 

Ex. 2. Answer the following questions.

 

1. 1 When did the first attempt to create a clone take place? What happened?

2. £ Who’s Dolly? Why is she famous?

3. In what ways is cloning different from copying?

4. Give one example of how cloning could be beneficial to humans.

5. What are the disadvantages of cloning from an ethical point of view?

 

Ex. 3. Work in pairs. Think of at least one more question to the text your partner should answer. Then change roles.

Ex. 4. Translate the Sentences into Russian.

 

1. Cloning is the process of growing two or more identical organisms from one cell.

2. Early successful experiments with cloning, using the tadpoles of frogs, took place in 1968.

3. The technique of tadpole cloning consisted of transplanting a frog's DNA, contained in the nucleus of a body cell, into an egg cell whose own genetic material had been removed.

4. Cloning does not mean copying: a clone shares the same genes as its donor, but its behaviour and characteristics will be different.

5. Cloning could be beneficial to humans. For example, we could use cloning to improve health; we could learn more about how organisms develop and we could put an end to the risk of extinction of endangered species.

6. The practical applications of cloning are financially promising but many ethical questions remain.

SPEAKING

 

Give a two-minute presentation on the benefits and problems of human being cloning. First read the text again and make notes on the following:

1. What is cloning?

2. How is cloning done?

3. benefits: medicine, saving of endangered species

4. problems: donors and clones, children of donors, religion, ethnic cleansing

 

Remember to:

· use key words for your notes, not complete sentences

· glance at your notes regularly

 

Speaking tips

· Speak in a clear voice.

· Maintain eye contact with your audience.

 

GRAMMAR

 

Ex. 1. Some of these sentences are correct, and some have a word which should not be there. If the sentence is correct, put a tick (-). If it is incorrect, cross the necessary word out of the sentence and write it in the space.

0 You promised you wouldn't be late.

0 Susan thought that I can't understand what's happening. that

1 Do you know me what time the coach leaves?

2 Robert wanted to know if did the price included breakfast.

3 Anna insisted on showing us her photos.

4 Someone asked us whether that we had eaten lunch.

5 Nancy told me she had started the job the week before.

6 Nigel said me he wanted to come with us.

7 My friend said she did liked her new flat.

8 Martin asked us for not to wake the baby.

 

Ex. 2. Decide which word is correct

0 What did that man say to you?

a) at you b) for you c) to you d) you

 

1 I rang my friend in Australia yesterday, and she said it………………….. raining there.

a) is b) should be c) to be d) was

 

2 The last time I saw Jonathan, he looked very relaxed. He explained that he'd been on holiday the…………. .......... week.

a) earlier b) following c) next d) previous

 

3 I wonder…………………. the tickets are on sale yet.

a) what b) when c) where d) whether

 

4 I told you…………………. switch off the computer, didn't I?

a) don't b) not c) not to d) to not

 

5 Someone………………......me there's been an accident on the motorway.

a) asked b) said c) spoke d) told

 

6 When I rang Tessa some time last week, she said she was busy…………………… day.

a) that b) the c) then d) this

 

7 When he was at Oliver's flat yesterday, Martin asked if he……… use the phone.

a) can b) could c) may d) must

 

8 Judy ........................ going for a walk, but no one else wanted to.

a) admitted b) offered c) promised d) suggested

 

Ex. 3. Read the news report and write the missing words. Use one word only in each space. Sometimes there is more than one possible answer.

 

Police have warned people (0) to watch out for two men who have tricked their way into an old woman's home and stolen money. The men called on Mrs. Iris Raine and said (1)…………………….. ... were from the water company and wanted to check (2) ...........…………… ... her water was OK. They asked if (3) ……………………… would mind letting them into her house. The woman didn't ask (4) ...............................see their identity cards. She said she (5) …………………….. . know about any problem with the water. The men explained that they (6)………………………… just discovered the problem but that it was very simple and (7) ………………………… take long to check. The woman asked (8)………………………… the service was free, and they said yes. They (9)………………………… to know where the water tank was. While one man ran water in the kitchen, the other went upstairs and took several hundred pounds from a drawer in a bedroom. The men then left saying that they would return the (10)………………………. Day to have another look.

Ex. 4. Complete each sentence by reporting what was said to you yesterday. Use said and change the tense in the reported speech.

0 Polly: I'm really tired.

When I saw Polly yesterday, she said she was really tired.

1 Tessa: I feel quite excited.

When I saw Tessa yesterday,

 

2 Nigel: I can't remember the code word.

When I saw Nigel yesterday,

 

3 Robert: I won't be at the next meeting.

When I saw Robert yesterday,

 

4 The twins: We've got a problem.

When I saw the twins yesterday,

 

5 Michelle: I've been swimming.

When I saw Michelle yesterday,

 

6 Your friends: We would like to be in the show.

When I saw my friends yesterday,

 

7 Adrian: I don't need any help.

When I saw Adrian yesterday,

 

8 Susan: My sister is coming to see me.

When I saw Susan yesterday,

Ex. 5. Report the sentences. They were all spoken last week. Use the verbs in brackets.

0 Anna to Janet: Don't forget to sign the form, (remind)

Anna reminded Janet to sign the form.

0 Robert: What time will the office close this evening? (ask)

Robert asked what time the office would close that evening.

 

1 A policeman to Christopher: Stop shouting, (tell)

2 Tessa: It was me. I ate all the cake yesterday, (admit)

3 Adrian: I'm sorry I was rude, (apologize)

4 Simon to Susan: Would you like to join me for lunch? (invite)

5 Martin to Nancy: Did someone ring you an hour ago? (ask)

6 Peter: I really must leave, (insist)

 

LISTENING

 

Before you listen

 

Discuss these questions with your partner.

1. What does research involve?

2. What kind of person would be good at research in your opinion?

 

Ex. 1. Listen to a talk about the scientist Rosalind Franklin and choose the correct answer.

1. Perhaps Franklin didn't receive the recognition she deserved because

A she was the only woman.

В women were treated differently in the past.

С she was only one of the people working on DNA.

 

2. Franklin's particular skills were

A being a researcher.

В interpretation and explanation of scientific results.

С photographing crystals and explaining the photos.

 

3. Franklin’s photo revealed

A a new technique of crystallography.

В the basic helix structure.

С the atoms in a crystal.

 

4. Watson was interested in the photo because

A the structure of DNA had never been seen before.

В it could be reproduced.

С he wanted to identify the double-helix.

 

5. Today Franklin is

A regarded by all as a genius.

В recognised as the most important contributor to DNA.

С somebody whose role in DNA research is clear.

 

WRITING

 

Write an essay about the key events that led to the discovery of the structure and function of DNA and explain the possible applications of these findings in today’s world.

Remember to:

• read the texts again

• select information that is relevant

 

Include some of these useful phrases in your writing:

 

To begin with,...

Research began with ...

Later on,...

In addition to that, ...

However, / On the other hand,...

Finally / In conclusion

 

PARAGRAPH 1

Introduction

What is DNA?

PARAGRAPH 2

Information about the scientists and their work (Miescher, Watson, Crick, Wilmut).

 

PARAGRAPH 3

Cloning (benefits & problems)

 

PARAGRAPH 4

Conclusion

 

Write 200-250 words.

 

UNIT 9

 

VLADIMIR VERNADSKY. THE THEORY OF NOOSPHERE

 

VOCABULARY

 

Ex. 1. Complete the sentences below with words from the box.

 

Source, commission, boundary, ore, crust, deposits, contribution, doctrine, required

 

1. Vernadsky’s particular beliefs led him to develop his unique………………….

2. Rich mineral................... were found in the area.

3. Uranium................... is mined in Australia.

4.Vernadsky’s development of the idea of the biosphere was an important…………….. to science.

5. Oil is a ……………..of energy.

6. A.................. was organized to look into the position of the mine.

7. The ................... between the two spheres has been defined.

8. In the Earth’s .................. there are many minerals.

9. What are the conditions …………….. for a better future?

 

Ex. 2. Read and memorize the following words and word combinations:

 

• to distinguish – отличать, различать • relevant – уместный • entity – сущность, реальность • will – воля •reason – разум • to prove oneself – проявлять себя • to ponder – обдумывать • to attribute great significance –придавать большое значение • atrocity – жестокость, зверство • thirst – жажда • to take measures – принять меры

 

READING

 

Before you read

 

Discuss these questions with your partner.

1. Are you interested in science?

2. What sort of discoveries would you like to make?

3. What do you imagine the world will be like in 50 years’ time?

 

TEXT

 

VLADIMIR IVANOVICH VERNADSKY

 

(1863 - 1945)

Throughout the entire history of mankind there have been few thinkers who could equal the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky. He was an outstanding mineralogist, geochemist, crystallographer, theoretical geologist and the lounder of many scientific establishments. He managed to see Earth from outer space fifty years before the first space flight. He saw it not only as one of the bodies in the solar system, but distinguished continents and oceans, rocks and living things, humans, minerals, atoms and mole­cules; he saw that "humans for the first time are becoming a geological force, capable of changing the face of our planet."

V.I. Vernadsky was born on March 12, 1863 in the family of a political economy professor. He spent his early childhood in Kharkov. He entered grammar school in 1873. In 1876 the family moved to Petersburg. The teaching faculty of Petersburg University at that time included D.I. Mendeleyev, V.V. Dokuchayev, and others. These prominent scientists were to play a particularly important role in Vernadsky's becoming an outstanding scientist. The thirst for knowledge, the joy of being free of the musty grammar school pushed Vernadsky to lectures not only in the natural sciences branch of the physical-mathematical department but in other departments as well.

In 1885 V.I. Vernadsky graduated from the university and was given a job as a custodian of the mineralogical department. His independent work began. Many of Vernadsky's achievements have not become out­dated with the passage of time; indeed they have become more relevant. I am referring to his work on the biosphere and men's global and space activity. Vernadsky spoke of turning the biosphere into a new entity, an area on the planet where human will, reason, and labour would prove themselves in a radical way (making a noosphere — a sphere of reason).

According to Vernadsky, human knowledge is not only a personal and social phenomenon but also a kind of a pla­netary phenomenon adjoined to the field of life. "Being part of the biosphere, man can judge the world order only by com­paring the phenomenon which he can see in it." Our current concept of the biosphere is based mainly on Vernadsky's theories.

After 1917 Vernadsky's scientific activity broadened. He took up new, highly difficult problems, put forward new ideas, wrote new books and articles on the history of minerals, on natural waters, on the circulation of the Earth's substances and gases, on space dust, geometry, the problem of time in modern science and on geochemical activity of living matter. In 1927 he organized a biogeochemical laboratory. In 1937 he addressed the international geological congress on "the significance of radioactivity for modern geology."

Till the very last days of his life Vernadsky remained on the frontiers of science: he pondered on the basics of the new teaching of the noosphere, directed the work of the committee on meteorites, researched isotope applications and worked a lot on the uranium problem. Owing to him, this country started to take measures to create an atomic industry and the raw materials basis for it. He attributed great significance to the use of nuclear energy for peaceful and creative purposes, for the creation of the noosphere.

At the age of almost 82 the scientist continued to work. The difficult war years, the newspaper reports about nazi atrocities seriously affected his health. He died on January 6, 1945. He was an inspired truth-seeker. "There is nothing stronger than the thirst for knowledge, the force of doubt...", he claimed. "We know just a small part of nature, just a tiny particle of that puzzling, murky and all-enveloping enigma, and everything that we know we have learned thanks to the dreams of the dreamers, fantasy-seekers and learned poets.

COMPREHENSION

Ex. 1. Number the events in the correct order.

 

· V.I. Vernadsky was taken on the staff of the mineralogical department.

· He also excelled himself as the organizer of a biogeochemical laboratory.

· Vernadsky went with his family to Petersburg.

· The difficult war years had a great influence on his health.

· Vernadsky’s major achievements of this period were books and articles on the history of minerals, on natural waters, on the circulation of the Earth's substances and gases, on space dust, geometry, the problem of time in modern science and on geochemical activity of living matter.

 

Ex. 2. Choose the right answer

1. Why did Vernadsky attribute great significance to the use of nuclear energy?

a) it served for peaceful and creative purposes, for the creation of the noosphere.

b) it provided "the equalizer" between the superpowers and produced an era of relative world peace at that time

c) it increased the power of his country

 

 

2. What was the contents of Vernadsky’s work till the very last days of his life?

a) he developed a new theory of the origin of petroleum

b) he worked a lot to create a safe electric system

c) he worked a lot on the uranium problem

 

3. What is a noosphere according to Vernadsky?

a) it is the source of the extraordinary radiation

b) it is a part of modern geology

c) it is a sphere of reason

Ex. 3. Read the text attentively and answer the following questions:

 

1. When and where was V.I. Vernadsky born?

2. What did he recall about his family atmosphere?

3. Where did he study after the family had moved to Petersburg?

4. What famous Russian scientists worked at the Petersburg University at that time?

5. Who played an important role in Vernadsky’s becoming an outstanding scientist?

6. What depart­ment did he study at?

7. When did his independent work begin?

8. Which of Vernadsky’s works have become especially nowadays?

9. What is the noosphere?

10. What is our current concept of the bio­sphere based on?

11. What did V.I.Vernadsky do after the Great October Revolution?

12. What did he attribute great significance to?

13. When did V.I.Vernadsky die? What affected his health seriously?

14. What kind of man and scientist was V.I. Vernadsky?

15. What did he value most of all?

 

Ex. 4.Translate the Sentences into Russian.

 

1. The Russian scientist Vladimir Vernadsky made an important contribution to science when he developed the idea of the biosphere.

2. Vernadsky taught mineralogy and crystallography inthe University of Moscow and became interested in geochemistry.

3. Vernadsky understood the possibility of using radioactive elements, but he also warned people that these elements were very dangerous.

4. The first uranium deposits were discovered in Russia in 1916 through Vernadsky's efforts.

5. For Vernadsky, the biosphere had existed since the very beginning of the Earth's history and it was constantly evolving.

6. Vernadsky believed that human reason, activity and scientific thought could lead to the evolution of the biosphere into the noosphere, the sphere of reason.

7. Vernadsky outlined the conditions that were required for the creation of the noosphere: equality for all people and an end to war, poverty and hunger.

 

Ex. 5. Render the contents of the text in 10 sentences.

 

GRAMMAR

 

Ex. 1. Choose the correct item

 

1. I missed the last train so I ... spend the night at the station.

A. must B. had to C. could

 

2. There were no seats on the bus so I ... stand.

A. had to B. ought to C. should

 

3. It is 8.20 now and she ... catch the 8.15 bus.

A. will have to B. won’t be able to C. will be allowed to

 

4. You know Mike ... do card tricks.

A. may B. must C. can

 

5. ... I use you car?

A. may B. have C. should

 

6. We ... buy biscuits because granny had baked a delicious pie.

A. didn’t have to B. couldn’t C. was able to

 

7. You .... better hurry. The train leaves in 5 minutes.

A. did B. had to C. should

 

8. The government ... spend more money on hospitals.

A. ought to B. can C. may

 

9. People ... drink and drive.

A. shouldn’t B. needn’t C. ought not to

 

10. ... you speak English when you were 5?

A. had B. could C. might

11. You ... speak during the examination.

A. mustn’t B. had to C. needn’t

 

12. He ... be back in an hour. We are going to Anna.

A. is to B. has to C. must

 

13. Oh dear, I ... remember her address.

A. can’t B. may not C. should

 

14. I lost all my money but fortunately I ... borrow some from my friends.

A. might B. could C. had to

 

15. Mike ... go fishing tomorrow morning.

A. can B. will be able to C. was able to

 

16. ... I use your phone, please?

A. may B. must C. should

 

17. She ... dance at the party because her leg was broken.

A. needn’t B. will C. couldn’t

 

18. Birds ... fly.

A. must B. should C. can

 

19. ... I leave the class-room?

A. may B. am C. could

 

20. She is a famous ballerina. She ... dance very well.

A. can B. must C. has to

 

21. Your father is sleeping. You ... be noisy.

A. couldn’t B. mustn’t C. must

 

22. ... you open the window, please?

A. may B. are able to C. could

 

23. You ... drive too fast. It’s dangerous!

A. needn’t B. mustn’t C. can’t

 

24. If you don’t study, you ... do the test well.

A. won’t be able to B. can’t C. will be allowed to

 

25. I ... have forgotten her telephone number.

A. must B. need C. will

 

26. He ... have come back from Moscow but I haven’t seen him yet.

A. should B. must C. may

 

27. He is very pale. He ... be very tired.

A. ought B. could C. must

 

28. He told me that I ... come here at any time.

A. might B. may C. can

 

29. I think it ... happen very soon.

A. can B. may C. is to

 

30. ... I smoke here?

A. must B. may C. should

 

31. She ... have been very glad to see you.

A. has to B. must C. ought to

 

32. I ... find this magazine in the library.

A. couldn’t B. was to C. can’t

 

33. I ... write to him about it at once.

 

LISTENING

Before you listen

 

Discuss these questions with your partner

1. What do you know about uranium?

2. Do you think atomic and nuclear power are safe? Why / Why not?

3. Do you know any other radioactive elements? Give examples of their application.

 

Ex. 1. Listen to the class discussion about uranium. Then decide if the following statements are true or false.

 

1. Uranium has been in the Earth’s crust for a very long time.

2. Uranium entered a star that had exploded.

3. Uranium is lighter than oxygen.

4. Uranium is a source of energy.

5. A small amount of uranium can produce a great deal of oil.

6. Less carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere when we use nuclear power.

WRITING

 

You have received a letter from your English-speaking pen friend,

 

… Yesterday we had a class where we discussed different ecological problems. Our teacher suggested opening an eco-club, where we can do something useful for the environment ...

 

…What ecological problem do you consider the most serious? What can young people do to protect the environment? Do you think ecological problems should be discussed at school, and why?

 

Write him a letter and answer his 3 questions.

 

Write 100–120 words. Remember the rules of letter writing.

 

 

 

UNIT 10

 

ECOLOGY. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

 

Ex. 1. Read and memorize the following words:

 

• correspond (to) v соответствовать • preserve v,n 1. сохранять, оберегать; 2. заповедник • sanctuary n заповедник • suffocate v задыхаться • threaten v угрожать • conveniences n pi. удобства, комфорт • uproot v корчевать, вырывать с корнем • advance v наступать, продвигаться • upset v нарушать • legislative а законодательный • per­missible а допустимый • to pass a law принимать закон • to violate a law нарушать закон • improve v улучшать • overcome v преодолевать • to do damage v наносить урон (ущерб) • rival n соперник; конкурент • danger n опасность, угроза • endanger v подвергать опасности, ставить под угрозу • to forsee (forsaw, forseen) v предвидеть • restore v восстанавливать

 

Ex. 2. Read and translate the following international words:

balance n, resident n, person n, tropical a, expert n, urbanization n, activist n, inspect course n, section n, civilization