WORD-BUILDING SYSTEM IN ENGLISH

LECTURE 6

Plan

1. General notion.

2. Affixation.

3. Valency of word-building elements.

4. Composition.

a) Ways of forming compounds;

b) Structural and semantic characteristics of compound words;

c) Derivational compounds.

5. Conversion.

6. Shortening

a) Clipping;

b) Acronymy.

7. Blending.

8. Back-formation.

 

1. General Notion

Word building is one of the ways of vocabulary extension. It is coining new words from existing elements according to existing patterns. New words are formed for two main reasons:

1) when it is necessary to give a name to a new object or phenomenon;

2) when a new name is needed for a familiar thing whose old name has become too stale because of its frequent use.

There exist the following types of word building in Modern English:

- affixation(to dehire),

- composition (airplane),

- conversion (to orbit),

- shortening (TV, exam),

- back-formation (to enthuse),

- blending (smog),

- sound imitation (boom),

- stress shifting, or stress interchange ('conduct (n) - con'duct (v)),

- sound interchange (break – breech).

Some linguists distinguish between word formation and word creation.

Word-formation includes derivation, conversion, and composition. Other types refer to word creation. In word formation a word-building rule is applied to a derivational base or bases, and affixes can be used (in the case of derivation and composition). Conversion is treated as zero derivation.

Word-building bases can be of 3 types:

- bases which coincide with stems of different degrees of complexity (simple, derivative, compound), e.g., dreamy, dreamily, daydreamer;

- bases which coincide with word forms, e.g., love-lost, good-looking;

- bases which coincide with word-groups, e.g., left-hander (from left hand).

The derivational base motivates the lexical meaning of the word. Word creation has no motivating base or derivative elements (e.g., D, lab, fruice), therefore it is considered to be a separate way of vocabulary extension. Some of the types of word-creation are rather productive in present-day English, such as blending, back-formation, shortening.

Productivity is the ability of a word-building type (or a pattern, or an affix) to coin new words at a given period of language history. The degree of productivity is seen in the ability of a word-building type, or a pattern in this type, or a word-building element to coin new words for one occasion – the so-called nonce words.

The word-building type, or a pattern, or an element is highly productive, if new words (nonce words) are easily formed. The suffixes -less, -ish are productive (e.g., collarless, dripless, old-maidish, Dickensish). The word-building type or pattern is semi-productive if new words are only occasionally used. For example, the suffix -dom was recently used to form the nouns slavedom, gangsterdom, but other words with this suffix are very early coinages. Non-productive types such as stress interchange, sound interchange are not used in the word building process nowadays. And even in productive types there can be non-productive patterns or elements. For example, the suffixes -hood, -ship, -th are not productive today, though suffixation itself is a highly productive word-building type.

Productivity must not be mixed up with frequency. Many of quite frequent suffixes are no more productive today, for example, the adjective-forming suffixes -y (mighty, angry, witty, steady), -ful (sorrowful, blissful, wonderful), -ary (necessary, ordinary).

 

2. Affixation (Derivation)

Affixation is coining new words by means of adding suffixes and prefixes to the word-building base, or the stem. It falls into suffixation and prefixation.

Suffixation. Derivational suffixes may be characterized from different points of view: their origin, part-of-speech, meaning, productivity, ability to join particular stems (valency), etc.

As for the origin of suffixes, there are native and borrowed suffixes.

To the native suffixes belong -ful, -less, -ish, -er, -dom, -ship, -hood, etc., e.g., handful, fatherless, preacher, freedom, etc. To the borrowed ones belong -able (Lat.), -ment (Fr.), -ion, -tion (Lat.), -age (Fr.), e.g., readable, enjoyment, union, courage. Borrowed suffixes are not adopted as isolated units, though they are just singled out of whole words if their structure recurs often enough.

Speaking about part of speech characteristics of suffixes one should remember that each part of speech has its own set of suffixes, for example:

-er (teacher), -ent (student), -ence (patience), -dom (freedom), -hood (brotherhood), -ment (employment) belong to noun-forming suffixes;

-ate (educate), -ise/-ize (nationalize), -(i)fy (simplify), -en (widen) are verb-forming suffixes;

-ish (British), -an (American), -ful (beautiful), -less (fatherless), -able (readable) are adjective-forming suffixes;

-wise (clockwise), -fold (manifold), -ly (quickly) are used to form adverbs.

There are three numeral-forming suffixes: -ty (twenty), -teen (fifteen), -th (fifth).

All suffixes are meaningful, and are grouped within each part of speech according to their meaning. E.g., adjective-forming suffixes include a group with the meaning of national belonging: -an(Indian), -ese(Chinese), -ish(English); the suffixes -lyand -like(e.g., manly, ladylike) both have the meaning «in a manner characteristic of the object denoted by the stem» and so on. It should also be noted that many suffixes are polysemantic (e.g., -ermay have agentival meaning, i.e., the meaning of the «doer of the action», e.g., teacher, and instrumental meaning, e.g., player (a device), computer). Some suffixes have homonyms, too (e.g., a homonym of the adjective-forming suffix -en (golden) is the verb-forming suffix -en (widen).

According to their ability to form new words in present-day English suffixes are classified into:

- productive, e.g., -er (packer), -ing (doing), -ful (roomful), -able (get-at-able), etc.

- non-productive, e.g., -th(death), -hood(chidhood), -some(tiresome), etc.

- dead e.g., -d (deed).

Some non-productive suffixes can become productive again, e.g., -dom(slavedom).

Prefixation.

Prefixes are characterized from the point of view of their origin, part-of-speech, meaning, valency, too.

Most prefixal words are verbs (42%); prefixal adjectives make 33,5%, prefixal nouns - 22%. Most prefixes form new words in the same part of speech, e.g., true – untrue, understand – misunderstand, estimate – underestimate, champion – ex-champion. They modify the meaning of the stem: to negation (untrue, demobilize); to repetition (rewrite); to degree (underdeveloped); to place (subway); to time (post-graduate), etc. But some prefixes form words in a different part of speech, e.g., be- (belittle), en- (enslave), a- (asleep), in- (indent), etc.

The native prefixes are un-, under-, over-, mis-, re-. The borrowed prefixes are: trans-, ex-, super-, sub-, со-, e.g., transatlantic, ex-wife, super-star, submarine, co-ed.

Prefixes can be polysemantic or homonymous, too. E.g., dis- has two meanings: negative, e.g., advantage – disadvantage and reversative, e.g., qualify – disqualify. The prefix a- may be used to form statives, e.g., abroad, asleep; its homonym has a negative meaning, e.g., amoral.

Valency of Word-Building Elements.

It is one of the most essential characteristics of word-building. Valency is defined as the ability of a linguistic unit to be combined with other linguistic units of the same order. Here we can speak of the valency of affixes and stems.

The most important feature of word-building elements is their ability to be combined with each other from the point of view of their part of speech characteristics. So, the noun-forming suffixes -ship, -hood, -let can be added to noun-stems (e.g., friendship, boyhood, eyelet), and the suffixes -ment, -tion, -ing, -ее, -ence/-ance are added to verbal suffixes (e.g., enjoyment, introduction, reading, evacuee, assistance). The suffix -er is easily combined with verbal suffixes (runner, fitter, etc.), but occasionally it can go with noun suffixes (e.g., astronomer, lifer). The valency of some of the adjective-forming suffixes is as follows: the suffix -able is added to verbal stems (regrettable), -ful – to noun stems with an abstract meaning (respectful, beautiful), -ish can go with noun stems (boyish) and with adjective stems (greenish). Note that the suffix -ful added to noun stems with the meaning of a container gives a noun (roomful, spoonful).

There are certain constraints (restrictions) on the ability of the elements to be combined with each other. They can be phonetic, morphological, syntagmatic and semantic. Some morpho-phonological constraints can be illustrated by the suffix -tion/ -ion/-sion: the allomorph -tion can't follow the consonant -n-. Cf: unite - union (not unition), opine - opinion (not opintion).There are some syntagmatic constraints on valency: dis- can only precede the stem, being a prefix, but it can never follow the stem, e.g., discharge, but not charge-dis. Some semantic constraints: the meaning of the stem must agree with the meaning of the affix. For example, adjectives can be formed by adding the suffix -ful to noun stems denoting quality or state but not to stems denoting objects, e.g., sorrowful, beautiful, joyful, but not boyful. Some morphological constraints: affixes can usually be attached to certain morphological classes of stems, e.g., -less can be added to noun stems, but not to verbal or adjective stems (e.g., motionless, but not moveless); -ing, -able go with verbal stems, but not with noun or adjective stems (e.g., readable, building), -ish can be added both to noun or adjective stems (e.g., greenish, boyish).

Valency can be broad or narrow. For example, the noun-forming suffixes -er, -ing can be added to unlimited numbers of verbal stems, e.g., netting scribbler, shuffler, running. The noun-forming suffix -ful can be added to any nominal stem meaning «container», e.g., spoonful, mouthful, roomful, etc., and the suffix -less – to nominal stems denoting some property, e.g., voiceless, bottomless, even typewriterless.

On the contrary, the suffix -ledge can be combined with a very limited set of stems, e.g., knowledge, but not thinkledge.

Some constraints are imposed by linguistic norm, by usage, though it is difficult to explain their reasons. For example, it is difficult to explain the rule choosing the prefix un- or in-, e.g., inadequate, but unattractive; unimportant, but impossible; also, unjust, but injustice, though unfaithful and unfaithfulness. The last case is rather regular, but unaccountable.

It is also difficult to explain some variant forms, which are possible in some cases but impossible in others, e.g., debarkation and debarkment are variants, but demarcation has no variant like debarkment.

 

3. Composition

Composition is forming new words by combining stems so that the whole is characterized by formal and semantic unity. This word-building type is productive in nouns and adjectives. Composition in verbs and in other parts of speech is very rare. Most polyradical verbs are the result of conversion (to honeymoon, to blacklist) or of back-formation (to typewrite was formed from typewriter or typewriting).

a) Ways of Forming Compounds.

From the point of view of the ways of combining stems compound words fall into:

1) words formed by means of mere juxtaposition of stems (e.g., sitting-room, seashore);

2) words formed with special linking elements -o-, -i-, -s-, (e.g., Anglo-American, tradesman, handicraft). Linking elements have no meaning. Their function is purely structural. Words like mother-of-pearl, son-in-law rather belong to the first type, because -of- and -in- are morphemes, they are meaningful.

The actual process of building compounds may take two forms:

1) Compound words can be built spontaneously according to productive patterns of the time, e.g., peace-fighter (Noun stem + Noun stem), runaway (V stem +Adj. stem), age-long (Noun stem + Adj. stem), etc.;

2) Compound words can be formed by means of a gradual process of semantic and structural isolation and fusion of free word-groups, e.g., lily-of-the-valley, brother-in-law, highway. Most of these compounds are nouns with the structure Adj. Stem + Noun stem, e.g., bluebell, blackboard.

b) Structural and Semantic Characteristics of Compound Words.

Compound words acquire structural and semantic integrity. They are spelt solidly or with a hyphen, they have unity of stress and structural cohesion, which ensures their structural integrity and distinguishes them from word groups. Compare: a blackboard and a black board. Compound words express one single notion, too, unlike similar phrases, e.g., a blackbird and a black bird.

From the morphological point of view compound words may consist of simple stems (sunflower), a simple stem and a derived stem (shop assistant), two derived stems (walkie-talkie, opener-upper). There are also compounds with a compound stem (aircraft-carrier).

One of the stems is usually the structural and semantic centre of the compound word, its basic part, which determines its part of speech belonging. In most cases it is the final constituent of the word, e.g., sunshine, but it is not always so. Cf.: brother-in-law. This part of the compound word is called the determinatum. It is the changeable part of the word, which can take inflections. E.g., schoolchildren, brothers-in-law, airplanes. The other part of the compound word (its determinant) modifies the meaning of the determinatum, gives additional information about it. For example, in the nouns sunshine and moonshine the morpheme -shine is the determinatum, which is modified by the determinants sun- and moon-.

Compound words may consist of stems of different parts of speech. For example, compound nouns may have the following structure:

N stem + N stem (toothache),

Ger. stem + N stem (cloakroom),

V stem + N stem (cutthroat),

Adj. stem + N stem (bluebell),

V stem + Adv. stem (breakdown) and so on.

According to relations between the constituents compound words fall into syntactic and asyntactic ones. The structural patterns of syntactic compounds correspond to the current syntactic patterns (e.g., hothouse = Adj. + N); the structural pattern of asyntactic ones does not (e.g., sky-blue – N + Adj.).

From the point of view of the degree of independence of their stems compound words are classified into the coordinative and the subordinate types. In coordinativecompounds both the IC's are equally important, e.g., fighter-bomber, actor-manager. Here belong reduplicative compounds, e.g., fifty-fifty, compounds with rhyme and ablaut germination, e.g., zig-zag, helter-skelter, and additive compounds, e.g. kitchen-diner, Afro-American. In subordinate compounds one constituent is the structural and semantic centre, and the other is subordinated to it, e.g., popcorn, blackberry. It is in most cases the last IС that is this structural and semantic centre.

From the point of view of their motivation compounds may be non-idiomatic and idiomatic. Non-idiomatic compounds are morphologically motivated; their meanings are derived from the meanings of constituent stems and the word-building pattern (e.g., classroom, schoolboy). Idiomatic compounds are not motivated morphologically; they may be motivated semantically, e.g., slowcoach, or demotivated, e.g., hangover.

Another semantic classification of compounds is into endocentric and exocentric ones. In endocentric compounds the determinatum serves as a generic name of the referent, and the determinant – as its specific characteristic, e.g., sunshine, moonshine. The determinatum -shine is the semantic centre of the compounds.

In exocentric compounds there is no semantic centre – there is no determinatum, but the whole word is its specific description. The name of the referent is only implied, it is outside the word, and it can be explicated by transforming the compound into a phrase, e.g., a scarecrow is ‘the object to scare birds away’.

Semantic relations between the stems of compound nouns and adjectives are quite numerous and variegated. For example, the word-building pattern Noun stem + Noun stem can have the following meanings, representing the relations between the IC's:

 

of purpose	N (1) for N (2)	dinner(2) – jacket(l)	a jacket for dinners
partitive	N (1) is a part of N (2)	door(2) - knob (1)	the knob of the door
of place or time	N (1) (in; of; at; with) N (2)	country (2) - house (l); spring (2) - time (l)	a house in the country the time of spring
appositive	N (1) is N (2)	woman (1) - doctor (2)	the doctor is a woman
instrumental or agentival	N (1) (run; caused; worked) by N (2)	wind (2) mill (l)	a mill worked by the wind

For more details see the textbooks by I.V.Arnold, R.S.Ginzburg.

Note: It is difficult to draw a line of demarcation between compound words and corresponding phrases. The criteria for that are formal unity (one primary stress, solid or hyphenated spelling, fixed order of morphemes) and semantic unity (one notion is expressed). But there exist a lot of borderline cases, e.g., there may be 3 ways of spelling: matchbox, match-box and match box. In many cases not all the formal criteria are fulfilled, e.g., in compound adjectives there are two primary stresses: 'sky-'blue.

c) Derivational Compounds.

There is a particular word-building pattern in English, which combines derivation (affixation) and composition. In this case two stems are combined but the unity of the word is ensured by the derivational suffix, which refers to the whole, but not to the stem to which it is added. E.g., long-legged, shortsighted, go-getter, do-gooder.

Composition and derivation take place simultaneously here. There is a difference between the following seemingly similar words: 1) mill-owner, 2) honeymooner, 3) left-hander. Mill-owner is a compound consisting of a simple and a derived stem; honeymooner is obtained by adding a derivational suffix -er to the compound stem (it is a suffixal word); left-hander is the combined result of derivation and composition, it is a derivational compound.

This process, which is also called phrasal derivation, is rather productive.

4. Conversion

Conversion is a specifically English type of word building determined by the structure of English, its analytical character, scarcity of inflections, abundance of mono- and disyllabic words in different parts of speech. Cf.: net (n), get (v), wet (adj.).

Conversion is forming new words in a different part of speech and with a different distribution characteristic, but without adding any derivative element, so that the original and converted words are homonymous. E.g., silence (n) - silence (v). The word building means in this case are 1) the paradigm and 2) the distribution of the word.

Structural Characteristics.

Mostly mono- and disyllabic root words are converted, e.g., to box, to eye, etc. But there is a marked tendency to convert words of a more complex structure, e.g., to nightwatch, to X-ray, to petition, etc.

Most of compound words are verbs formed from nouns (to fox, to hammer, to phone), from adjectives (to dry, to yellow), from adverbs (to up, to out), from other parts of speech (to but, to yes), from interjections (to encore), even from phrases (to my-friend). Nouns are also easily formed from different parts of speech (a try, a find – from verbs, a sweet – from adjectives, ups and downs – from adverbs, encore – from interjections, etc.).

Adjectives are obviously not formed from nouns by means of conversion, because nouns can perform the syntactic function of an attribute, e.g., a stone wall, a gold ring. Stone and gold are nouns in the function of an attribute, but not adjectives for several reasons: they can't be used predicatively, and they can be modified by other adjectives but not by adverbs, e.g., a solid gold ring, a natural stone wall.

Semantic relations between original and converted words are heterogeneous. But some types of relations may be classified and the meaning of the converted word can be predicted. For example, deverbal nouns can have the meaning of result (a catch, a find) or an act (a try, a go); denominal verbs can have instrumental meaning (to radio, to hammer), or agentival meaning «in a manner characteristic of» (to crowd, to dog, to nurse), or locative meaning of container «to put in a container» (to can, to bottle).

Historical background of conversion.

Conversion appeared in Middle English together with and as a result of levelling and loss of endings in words of changeable parts of speech. This process resulted in the appearance of a lot of pairs of words of the same stem belonging to different parts of speech but having no indication of their part of speech belonging. E.g., OE lufu > love (n), OE lufian > love (v). By analogy other con-elations were easily formed in speech, e.g., to tiptoe, to button, to father, etc. In present-day English it is among the most productive types of word building.

 

5. Shortening

Shortening falls into clipping (curtailment, contraction, or shortening proper) and acronymy (initial abbreviation). Clippings are derived from single words (e.g., mike from microphone); acronyms are derived from phrases (e.g., MP from Member of Parliament). Though some clippings can be due to ellipsis of phrases, too (pub from public house).

Clipping.

It consists in taking away any part of the word. The remaining part, which may be neither a morpheme nor even a syllable, acquires all the characteristic of the word: formal and semantic unity (semantic integrity), formal and semantic variation, grammatical paradigm and syntactic use. E.g., Tony spoke with the vet's wife. Vet is a usual word with all its characteristics.

Structural and morphological characteristics of clippings.

There are three structural types of clipping with respect to the position of the clipped part of the word:

1. initial clipping, or apheresis. The initial part of the word is taken away, e.g., history > story;

2. medialclipping, or syncope. The middle part is taken away, e.g., spectacles > specs;

3. finalclipping, or apocope. The end of the word is taken away, e.g., demonstration > demo.

There may be mixed types of clipping, e.g., detective > tec (initial + final clipping). There may be also some changes in the remaining part of the word: pronunciation may change, e.g., laboratory > lab; or spelling may change, e.g., microphone > mike.

Clipping is a source of new morphemes. Clipped words often serve as word building bases, e.g. taxi is a clipping of taximeter cab. This new stem is a base for taxicab, taxi-driver, taxi-man, to taxi.

Clipping is often combined with derivation (e.g., comfy from comfortable, hanky from handkerchief) and composition (e.g., lab-assistant, go-getter).

Semantic peculiarities of clippings.

Polysemantic words are usually clipped in one meaning, but they may further develop new meanings. Compare fantasy and fancy, history and story. Homonymy among clippings is rather frequent, e.g., vac – 1. vacation, 2. vacuum cleaner.

Stylistic peculiarities of clippings.

Clipping is typical of colloquial speech, and clippings, especially the latest ones, are stylistically coloured as colloquial. E.g., exam, pro, dip, dorm. Most of the earliest clippings have become stylistically neutral, e.g., fend, strange, storyformed fromdefend, estrange, history.

Acronymy.

Only initial letters of the phrase are left which may be pronounced in two ways:

1.alphabetic (D.C., USA);

2. according to the rules of reading (AIDS, UNO, UNESCO).

Acronymy is especially widely used in the press for the names of the governmental, social and other institutions, movements, organizations, countries, etc.: e.g., TUC, CIS, ELT, etc. It is also spreading in colloquial English, too, e.g., BF (boy-friend), GF (girl-friend). There are also some abbreviated terms: ТВ, AIDS, HIV.

Acronyms behave as usual words, they may have the paradigm of the part of speech they belong to and its distribution: e.g., She is my BF's GF. Some of the acronyms turned into regular morphemes, e.g., jeep< GP(a car for general purposes). They may also serve as word building bases, e.g., MP'ess.

Homonymy of acronyms is even more regular than that of clippings. E.g., MP may stand for Member of Parliament, Military Police, Marine Police, Municipal Police, Mounted Police, etc.

Shortening of both types (clipping and acronymy) is becoming highly productive nowadays. The reasons for it are both linguistic and extralinguistic. The extralinguistic factor is the ever-growing pace of life. The linguistic factors are:

1) bringing long words in conformity with the orthographic and phonetic standards of Modem English;

2) economy of linguistic expression. So, such words as microphone, laboratory, mackintosh, miserable, impossible and the like easily turn into mono- or disyllabic words: mike, lab, mac, mizzy, imposs.

6. Blending

Blending is a particular type of shortening, combining some features of both clipping and composition. It consists in combining parts of two words into one word: e.g., flush < flame + blush; smog < smoke + fog.

There are several structural types of blends, depending on which parts of the words are brought together:

initial part+ final part, e.g., electrocute;

initial part+ initial part, e.g., sci-fi, hi-tech;

full word + final part, e.g., slimnastics;

full word + initial part, e.g., paratroops, narcodollars.

When the second constituent of a blend is frequent enough, it may turn into a sort of a suffix, e.g., -gate in Reagangate, Irangate, Russiagate, Monicagate.

Semantically. there are two types of blends:

1. additive, transformable into coordinative word-groups with the conjunction and, e.g., brunch < breakfast + lunch, dunch < dinner + lunch;

2. restrictive, transformable into a subordinative attributive or adverbial group, e.g., electrocute < execute by electricity, fruice < fruit juice.

This type of word-building is now rapidly gaining in productivity, especially in advertising, technical terminology, political jargon and in every-day speech, e.g., Euroshima, transceiver, transistor, telecast, motel, shampoo, Europarliament, etc.

 

7. Back Formation

It is coining new words by subtracting a real or supposed suffix as a result of misinterpretation of the structure of the word or of its word-building history. This word-building type is reverse to suffixation.

The first examples of conversion date back to the Old English – Middle English period, when some Old French borrowed nouns were misinterpreted as suffixal words. For example, peas, cherries were taken to be the plural forms of the nouns pea and cherry; butler, beggar, cobbler were interpreted as derivative nouns from the verbs to buttle, to beg, to cobble, by analogy with other real derivatives.

Some words were formed from native bases, e.g., the OE adverbs groveling and sideling with the suffix -ling were reinterpreted as suffixal words with the suffix -ing; so, the verbs to sidle, to grovel came into being.

In present-day English this type is productive in verbs. The following suffixes are most often subtracted:

• -er: to donate < donator, to vivisect < vivisector;

• -ing: to fact-find < fact-finding, to night-fly < night-flying:

• -y: to laze < lazy, to cose < cosy. Diachronically, the nouns greed, pet were derived in this way from greedy and petty, and the adjective difficult from difficulty.

• -ion: to automate < automation, to aggress < aggression;

• -asm/-ism: to enthuse < enthusiasm.

Back formation is not to be confused with shortening, because the subtracted part is an affix (real or supposed), but not any accidental part of the word.