Transconductance amplifier
The four basic types of amplifiers are as follows:
This is the most common type of amplifier. An input voltage is amplified to a larger output voltage. The amplifier’s input impedance is high and the output impedance is low.
This amplifier changes an input current to a larger output current. The amplifier’s input impedance is low and the output impedance is high.
This amplifier responds to a changing input voltage by delivering a related changing output current.
This amplifier responds to a changing input current by delivering a related changing output voltage. Other names for the device are transimpedance amplifier and current-to-voltage converter.
TASK 5. Watch the video about amplifiers and complete the following tasks.
Before watching the video, match the words and their meanings.
| tutorial | шпионить за кем-то |
| operational amplifier | выдать |
| beginner | биение сердца |
| heartbeat | консультация |
| spy on | новичок |
| spit out | треугольник |
| triangle | операционный усилитель |
| pins | неинвертирующий |
| inverting | сгладить |
| non-inverting | штырь, игла |
| out of nowhere | подключать |
| smooth | уравнение |
| hook up | инвертирующий |
| equation | из ниоткуда |
After watching the video, answer the following questions.
1. What is this part of the tutorial about? 2. What is the easiest type of an amplifier for beginners? 3. What is the function of an amplifier? 4. What is the “gain” of the amplifier? 5. How many pins were shown in a bare op amp circuit? 6. What do plus and minus on the diagram mean? 7. What minimum voltage supplies values should you have? 8. What might happen if you don’t give your op amp enough voltage? 9. Why do you need to use capacitors in your circuit? 10. How can you get a really good positive and negative voltage supply for your op amp?
Listen to the second part of the video and fill in the gaps.
Now, this thing alone isn’t going to be able to 1) … anything. You’ve got to have a couple of other components to 2) … your op amp to have a right 3) …. I’m going to show you one of the simplest amplifier 4) … you can build – a classic non-inverting amplifier. With a non-inverting amplifier you set the gain with 5) …. The gain is given by one plus R2 60 … R1. So if R1 is 2 kOhms and R2 is ten kOhms, you’ll get a gain of 1 + 5 which would be 6. You usually want these resistors to be somewhere in kiloOhm 6) …. So an easy thing beginners can do is just let R1 be 1 kOhm and use this 7) … to calculate the 8) … of R2 to get the gain that you want.
UNIT 13
Task 1.Study new words and word combinations
| AF=audio frequency | ['du] | звуковая частота, низкая частота | |
| silicon chip | кремниевый чип | ||
| aerial | ['rl] | антенна | |
| tuner | ['tjun] | тюнер, приемник | |
| speaker | динамик | ||
| supply rail | [s'pla] | шина питания, питающая шина | |
| approach | ['pru] | подход, принцип | |
| wiper | ['wap] | ползунок, скользящий контакт | |
| block/circuit diagram | блок-схема / электроцепь | ||
| complicated | сложный, трудный, запутанный | ||
| feed (fed-fed) | питать, подавать энергию | ||
| consist of | состоять из | ||
| comprise | включать | ||
| bridge | [br] | соединять | |
| earth | [] | заземлять | |
| in series | последовательно | ||
| in parallel | параллельно | ||
| modulator | регулятор, модулятор синхронизатора, преобразователь |
Task 2 .Match the pairs of synonyms.
| 1) value | a) complex, composite |
| 2) complicated | b) to include |
| 3) variable | c) to compose |
| 4) to bridge | d) meaning, magnitude |
| 5) to consist of | e) to link, to connect |
| 6) to comprise | f) alternative, alternating |
Task 3. Complete the table with the related words and memorize them.
| Noun | Verb | Adjective |
| value | ||
| variable | ||
| to tune | ||
| speaker | ||
| wiper | ||
| complicated | ||
| to frequent | ||
| modulator |
Task 4. Use the word in brackets to form a word which fits in the sentence.
1. Using this approach we’ll get … results (to value). 2. The a) … b)… a carrier wave (to modulate). 3. A … capacitor can vary between 5 and 65 picofarads (to vary). 4. AF stands for audio …. (to frequent). 5. The … selects the required signal (to tune).
Task 5. Read the text and answers the questions.
ELECTRONIC DIAGRAMS
Although electronic devices may look complicated, they are made up of common basic units (“building blocks”)connected together. The function of each of these units and the path of the signals between them can be shown in a block diagram. For example, the block diagram of a simple radio is shown in Figure 1.
To understand how the radio works, it is important to understand the function of each unit than to know what components are used. This is known as a systems approach to electronics. For example, in Fig. 1 the tuner selects the required signal, the detector then separates off the audio part of the signal, and the AF amplifier (amp) amplifies it.
The connections and values of the components inside these basic units can be shown in a circuit diagram using standard electronic symbols. Fig.2 shows the circuit diagram for the simple radio.
1. What do we call the two types of diagrams shown in the text? 2. What do we call the approach to electronics which focuses on the function of units?
Task 6. How many of the circuit symbols in Fig.2 can you identify? Use Appendix 1 to help you.
Task 7. Here are some circuit symbols. Label them and describe their function. For example:
3hIt’s called a transformer. It steps AC voltages up or down.
This list of functions may help you.
a) vary capacitance in a circuit
b) rectify alternating current
c) add resistance to a circuit
d) measure very small currents
e) break a circuit
f) protect a circuit
g) vary the current in a circuit
h) step AC voltages up or down.
i) receive RF signals
j) measure voltages
TASK 8. Study this block diagrams and circuits. Look again at Fig.1 above. We can describe it like this:
The radio consists of a tuner, a detector, and an AF amplifier.
is composed of
Using comprise, we can start our description with the blocks:
A tuner, a detector, and an AF amplifier comprise the radio.
We can describe the links between each building block using these expressions:
The tuner is connected to the detector.
is linked to
Now look again at Fig.2. We can describe the values of the components like this:
R1 a-two-hundred-and-twenty-kilohm resistor
C2 a hundred-picofarad (puff) capacitor
Task 9. Describe the value of these components:1) R2; 2) C1; 3) R3; 4) C3; 5) P1; 6) L1.
This table provides the terms you need.
| Prefix | Symbol | Multiple | Example |
| giga mega kilo deci milli micro nano pico | G M k d m µ n p | 109 106 103 10-1 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 | GHz gigahertz M megohms kV kilovolts dB decibels mW milliwatts µH microhenries nF nanofarads pF picofarads |
Looking now at the basic units of the circuit, we can describe the volume control like this:
The volume control consists of a ten-microfarad electrolytic capacitor connected in series with a five-kilohm potentiometer (pot). The positive terminal of the capacitor is connected to the output of the AF amplifier and the wiper of the pot is connected to the power amp. The third terminal of the pot is connected to the zero voltage supply rail, which is earthed.
Task 10. Fill in the gaps in this description of the tuned circuit shown in Fig.2. Each gap represents one word.
The circuit 1) … of a four hundred and seventy 2) … inductor which is connected in parallel with 3) … capacitor. The 4) … can be varied between five and sixty-five 5) … . The aerial is 6) … to the top end of the tuner. It is also connected to the positive terminal of the 7) … in the detector. The bottom end of the tuner is connected to earth via the zero voltage 8) … rail.
Task 11. With the help of the diagram, fill in the gaps in the text. Each gap represents one word. The description should answer the questions:
1. What is the diagram of? 2. What does it consist of in terms of blocks? 3. How are the blocks connected? 4. What is the function of each block?
Fig. 3
Fig.3 shows the block diagram of an amplitude-modulated (AM) radio transmitter. It 1) … of a radio frequency (RF) oscillator, a 2) …, an audio frequency (AF) amplifier, and an RF power amplifier. The RF 3) … generates an RF 4) … wave which is fed into the modulator.
The microphone converts sounds into audio frequency signals which are amplified by the AF 5) …. The modulator then uses the amplified AF 6) … to modulate the RF carrier wave.
The power of the modulated carrier wave is increased by the RF 7) … amplifier. The strong modulated output signals are fed to the 8) … which enables them to be transmitted over long distances.
TASK 12.Watch the video and decide whether the statements below are true or false. Correct the false ones.
1. According to the video, the simplest radio comprises of more than five blocks. 2. The tutor says that there is only one method to complete the exam task. 3. The basic components include: a tuned circuit, antenna, RF filter, and a demodulator as well as your headphones. 4. Antenna is the first element as it catches the signal. 5. Antenna receives the pulses which are processed by a tuned circuit to pick out the signals to need. 6. The audio signal is separated from its carrier wave with the help of the tuned circuit. 7. The RF filter comes before the headphones.
UNIT 14
Task 1.Study new words and word combinations.
| launch | [ln] | запускать | |
| involve | [n'vlv] | включать в себя, вовлекать | |
| appear | ['p] | появляться | |
| explain | [k'splen ] | объяснять | |
| complement | ['kmplmnt] | дополнять, составлять, комплектовать | |
| improve | улучшать | ||
| emerge | ['m] | возникать | |
| wind | [wand] | наматывать | |
| maintain | поддерживать | ||
| continue | продолжать | ||
| follow | следовать | ||
| diversify | [da'vsfa] | разнообразить; изменять, модифицировать | |
| cease | [sis] | прекращать | |
| undergo | [nd'gu] | испытывать | |
| spread | [spred] | распространяться | |
| experience | [k'sprns] | испытывать | |
| enrich | обогащать | ||
| propagate | ['prpget] | распространять(ся) | |
| disappear | [ds'p] | исчезать | |
| erase | ['rez] | стирать |
TASK 2. Match the inventions, years and inventors.
| engine-powered airplane | Wilbur & Orville Wright | |
| 27th century | Ancient Egyptians | |
| Internet | Gottlieb Daimler | |
| alphabet | Pope Gregory XIII | |
| calendar (Gregorian) | Ray Tomlinson | |
| automobile | ARPA, Department of Defense | |
| paper money | Levi Strauss, Jacob Davis | |
| jeans | late 900s | The Chinese |
| television | Michael Cullen | |
| supermarket | 1923, 1927 | Vladimir Kosma Zworykin, Philo Taylor Farnsworth |
TASK 3. Fill in the gaps in the sentences below with the verbs in the correct form from the box.
| use, maintain, develop, increase, launch, continue, follow, discover |
1. The iPod can download new files from iTunes, exchange software … by Apple. 2. When men … that they could use electricity to send messages, long distance communication changed. 3. The company is expected to … several new products next year. 4. We … the electric telegraph to send written messages to people far away from us. 5. First came the student speeches, and the presentation of awards …. 6. The company has done a poor job of … its computer network. 7. The semiconductors such as silicon, germanium, selenium, phosphorus, boron and various other metallic oxides and sulphides appear to possess some unexpected properties. For instance, their conductivity … with heating and falls with cooling. 8. The lecture … for another hour after we left.
TASK 4. Match the verbs below with their definitions.
e.g. Discover means to learn, see or find something new but existing.
| change | to make (something) clear or easy to understand |
| involve | wrap or surround a core with a coiled length of something |
| appear | to come into existence |
| explain | to become different |
| complement | to complete something else or make it better |
| improve | to become known or visible |
| emerge | to make something or become better |
| wind | to have or include (someone or something) as a part of something |
TASK 5. Match the synonymous verbs in the box below: diversify, cease, undergo, spread, experience, enrich, propagate, disappear, stop, erase
e.g. Start has the same meaning as begin.
TASK 6. Read the text.
ENDLESS INVENTIVENESS
Many animal species (['spiiz]) use tools, and some, such as crows and apes, can even create them. But only our species has taken this ability to such an extreme that it can be said that we maintain an evolutionary symbiosis with these tools. In other words, our ability to develop complex tools increased our intelligence, allowing us to manufacture even more complex tools. This, in turn, launched a new phase in this cycle, and after several million years it finally led to the modern human, who continues to develop tools that will likely continue to transform the species.
Of course, this history has not always followed a linear path. In the 9,000 years since humans discovered agriculture and cattle farming, many inventions were discovered many times and forgotten nearly as many times. Today we are surprised to learn that the Romans knew about concrete and that they had taxis and hamburger stands or that the Greeks developed the basic principles of the locomotive and the steam engine (although, oddly enough, they never combined the two to invent the railroad). We have developed the most absurd theories to explain the construction of the pyramids in Egypt or the moai ([mou’ai] monolithic human figures) of Easter Island. This winding history, with steps forward and steps backward, can be explained thus: technical inventions are a specific response to the specific needs of a given human group, and when these needs or the people who needed to meet those needs disappear or change, the inventions associated with them also disappear or change.
A few centuries ago, the creative ability of human beings took a major leap forward when tools associated with craft and empirical techniques began to complement science, thus systematizing the methods of production. This is how modern technology emerged, allowing improved preservation not just of know-how but also of the economic, social, and cultural aspects involving this know-how. Once tool making ceased to be something that was passed on from master craftsman to apprentice and became an organized set of procedures and knowledge accessible to a specialized community, the human ability to invent new tools underwent an explosion similar to the one it experienced 9,000 years earlier.
Virtually overnight thousands of objects appeared (and would continue to appear) that changed our way of seeing and understanding the world – the clock, which allowed us to divide time and set a new pace for our lives; the printing press, which allowed knowledge to be spread beyond a privileged few; the refrigerator, which enriched and diversified our nutrition practices; the cinema, which opened up the possibility of dreaming while awake; the Internet, which erased borders and distances; and robotics and artificial intelligence, which led us to question our definition of being human. With the emergence of technology, you could say that our lives are surrounded by marvelous objects.
TASK 7. Answer the questions below. Choose no more than THREE words from the text for each answer.
1. What word used in the text describes the process of coexistence of two living things which depend on each other? 2. What was discovered along with agriculture about 9000 years ago? 3. According to the text, what nation did not manage to put two inventions together to produce one of the most popular means of transport existing now? 4. Before the development of technology, what was the privilege of only craftsmen and their trainees? 5. What invention, according to the text, contributed into the propagation of knowledge?
TASK 8. Do the following statements agree with the text? Decide if the information is true, false or not given.
1. All the animal species are able to create tools.
2. There is a clear interconnection between the complexity of tools and people producing them and their ability to think.
3. The Romans used concrete to build the roads along which taxis were moving.
4. People invent something when they feel this thing is really necessary and forget about it when the necessity disappears.
5. According to the text, a lot of inventions were made within a very short period of time.
TASK 9. Study the following information about the infinitive:
| Active | Passive | |
| Present Pres. Cont Perfect Pert. Cont. | (to) lose (to) belosing (to) have lost (to) have been losing | (to) be lost - (to) have been lost - |
The bare Infinitive is used:
1. after modal verbs (can, should, must, etc.): e.g. He should apologize to his parents. BUT: ought is followed by to-infinitive: e.g. She ought to find a job.
2. after the verbs let, make, see, hear and feel: e.g. They saw her talk to the manager.
BUT: be made, be heard, be seen + to –Infinitive (passive): e.g. She was seen to talk to the manager.
3. after had better and would rather: e.g. You had better see a doctor.
4. Help is followed by either the to-infinitive or the bare infinitive.
e.g. She helped me (to) fill in my application form.
TASK 10. Fill in the gaps with “to” if necessary.
1. How could electricity ... be used ... send a message? 2. For two years Tom Watson and Alexander Bell were working together ... build a machine that people could ... be used ... talk to one another over long distances. 3. The camera-tube will ... allow the user ... switch from a wide view of the room to the face of the person speaking. 4. There is a mirror attachment, which allows the camera ... scan documents, which may be lying on the table. 5. Satellites help … minimize all the difficulties that may appear. 6. One CD-ROM disk can ... replace 300,000 pages of text – about 500 floppies, which represents a lot of savings in databases. 7. Superconductors are extremely difficult ... fabricate into wires. 8. Superconductor ceramics are substances which can ... transmit electric currents with no loss of energy at temperatures much higher than conventional superconductors. 9. If a current is induced by a magnetic field in a ring of superconducting material, it will ... continue ... circulate when the magnetic field is removed.
TASK 11. Complete the second sentence using the word given, so it has a similar meaning to the first sentence. Write between two and five words in each gap.
1. He can easily create a new gadget to meet his needs.
FORIt is not difficult … a new gadget when he needs it.
2. It is impossible to maintain the technological development without new scientific data.
CANNOTYou … without new scientific research.
3. Some animal species can use and create tools.
ABLE Some animal species … create tools.
4. A human being uses tools to create other more complex tools.
USED Tools are … to create other more complex tools.
5. This computer is too old to be used for this purpose.
ENOUGH This computer is … used for this purpose.
6. They made him design a new approach to the problem.
TO He … a new approach to the problem.
7. His telephone wasn’t up-to-date enough to run this application.
OLD His telephone … to run this application.
8. I think it’s interesting to invent new devices which can make our life easier.
INVENTING I think … which can make our life easier is interesting.
9. Maintaining equipment regularly is important.
MAINTAIN It’s … regularly.
TASK 12. Listen to the recording and fill in the gaps.
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
The 1) … of the telephone, Alexander Graham Bell, was born in Scotland, where he studied voice 2) … and hearing. He later moved to America, where he combined this work with an 3) … into the transmission of 4) … by electricity. Bell managed to transmit his voice 5) … in 1875, patenting his idea the next year. He formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877, as part of a legal fight to protect his 6) …. He used some of the profits from his 7) … of the telephone to finance special schools for the deaf. Bell carried on inventing for the rest of his life, 8) … hydrofoils to make ships faster and kites capable of lifting people.
UNIT 15
Task 1.Study new words and word combinations
| emission | ['m()n] | эмиссия, выделение | |
| generation | [en're()n] | образование, выработка | |
| transmission | передача, пересылка, трансмиссия | ||
| reception | [r'sep()n] | получение, прием | |
| computer-aided design | автоматизированное проектирование | ||
| demodulation | детектирование, выпрямление, уменьшение глубины модуляции | ||
| recovery | [r'kv()r] | извлечение, восстановление | |
| transducer | [trænz'djus] | преобразователь, приемник, датчик | |
| digitization | оцифровка, цифровое кодирование | ||
| fidelity | [ f'delt f'delt] | точность | |
| reliability | [rla'blt] | надежность | |
| satellite communication | ['sæt()lat] | спутниковая связь | |
| manufacture | [mænj'fæk] | производить | |
| evaluate | ['væljuet] | оценивать | |
| repair | [r'p] | чинить, ремонтировать | |
| intricate | ['ntrkt] | сложный, замысловатый | |
| facilitate | [f'sltet] | облегчать, способствовать | |
| benefit from | получать выгоду | ||
| high-performance | высокоточный | ||
| aircraft wing | авиакрыло | ||
| influence | влиять | ||
| computer-guided | управляемый компьютером | ||
| altimeter | ['æltmit] | альтиметр, радиоальтиметр | |
| enforcement | [n'fsmnt] | контроль соблюдения | |
| estimate | оценивать, оценочное значение |
Task 2. Match the words in A with their synonyms in B.
| A | B |
| 1. a vacuum tube | a) to produce, to generate |
| 2. to manufacture | b) accuracy |
| 3. to repair | c) valve |
| 4. to evaluate | d) extraction |
| 5. fidelity | e) enforcement |
| 6. recovery | f) complex |
| 7. amplification | g) to estimate, to value |
| 8. intricate | h) to fix, to mend |
Task 3. Complete the table with the related words and memorize them.
| Noun | Verb | Adjective |
| activate | ||
| amplification, amplifier | ||
| emission | ||
| extract | ||
| generation | ||
| integrated / integrative | ||
| recovered | ||
| reception | ||
| reliable | ||
| stored | ||
| transmittable/ transmissible | ||
| entertainment |
Task 4. Fill in the gaps with the words in brackets.
1. The weak audio signal entering a radio is made stronger by the … thus making it audible (amplify). 2. Computer games are just one example of electronic systems being used for … (entertain). 3. Due to developments in mobile telecommunications systems, a new … of mobile phone is now available (generate). 4. IC stands for … circuit (integrate). 5. Computer software is … if it does what the manual says it should (rely.) 6. One area of electronics is concerned with the … of information (store). 7. The … of signals to satellites is made by microwaves (transmit). 8. A computer chip is capable of holding vast amounts of … information (store). 9. … of speech was first carried out through … of the amplitude of a radio signal (transmit, modulate). 10. In a laser, energy is released in the form of … light (emit).
Task 5. Read and translate the text.
MAJOR INFLUENCES OF ELECTRONICS
Electronics is a branch of engineering and physics. It deals with the emission, behaviour, and effects of electrons for the generation, transmission, reception, and storage of information. This information can be audio signals in a radio, images (video signals) on a television screen, or numbers and other data in a computer. Electronic systems are important in communication, entertainment, and control systems.
Electronic circuits consist of interconnections of electronic components, at the heart of which are semiconductors. Transistors, which are made of silicon or germanium, are made from semiconductors. Commercial products range from cellular radiotelephone systems and video cassette recorders to high-performance supercomputers and sophisticated weapons systems. In industry, electronic devices have led to dramatic improvements in productivity and quality. For example, computer-aided design tools facilitate the design of complex parts, such as aircraft wings, or intricate structures, such as integrated circuits.
The development of microelectronics has had a major impact on the electronics industry. Electronic components are expected to deliver ever higher performance, while electronic circuits continue to benefit from miniaturization.
The electronics industry creates, designs, produces, and sells devices such as radios, televisions, stereos, video games, and computers, and components such as semiconductors, transistors, and integrated circuits. In the second half of the 20th century, this industry had two major influences. Firstly it transformed our lives in factories, offices, and homes; secondly it emerged as a key economic sector. Specific advances include:
· the development of space technology and satellite communications
· the revolution in the computer industry that led to the personal computer
· the introduction of computer-guided robots in factories
· systems for storing and transmitting data electronically
· radio systems to automobiles, ships, and other vehicles
· navigation aids for aircraft, automatic pilots, altimeters, and radar for traffic control
The applications of electronic engineeringcover almost every aspect of modern life such as aerospace, consumer goods, automotive, defense, energy/power, imaging equipment, industrial automation, medical instrumentation, oil and gas, semiconductor, telecommunication, transportation. The industry also involves a wide range of tasks e.g. design, development, evaluation, manufacture, etc.
Task 6. Say whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false ones.
1. Electronics is a branch of engineering and chemistry. 2. Information can be audio signals, images, or numbers and other data. 3. Electronic circuits consist of interconnections of electronic components, at the heart of which superconductors are. 4. In industry, electronic devices have led to dramatic improvements in productivity and quantity. 5. Electricity deals with the emission, behaviour, and effects of electrons. 6. The development of microelectronics has had a major impact on the electronics industry. 7. In the first half of the 20th century, this industry had two major influences. 8. The application of electronic engineeringcovers almost every aspect of modern life and involves a wide range of tasks.
Task 7. Answer the questions.
1. What is electronics? 2. What does it deal with? 3. Where are electronic systems important? 4. What do electronic circuits consist of? 5. What are transistors made of? 6. How do electronic devices help in industry? 7. What does the electronics industry do? 8. What were the two major influences of the electronics industry in the second part of the 20th century? 9. What aspects of our life do the applications of electronic engineeringcover? 10. Does the industry involve a wide range of tasks?
Task 8. Choose the correct word in the following sentences.
1. Transistors/inductors are the key components in electronics. 2. They consist of three layers of silicon semiconductor/superconductor. 3. All electronic/electrical systems consist of input, a processor and output, and usually memory. 4. The input receives/resists and converts information while the output converts and supplies electronically processed information. 5. The memory may not be present in simple systems, but its function is the storage/transmission of information for the processor. 6. Continual developments in electronics give us increased reliability /recovery in electronic devices. 7. Electronic equipment controls microprocessors/ microwaves in, for example, weapons systems, cellular radiotelephone systems and domestic appliances. 8. Electronic devices have improved our lives by providing high quality communication/combination and entertainment.
Task 9. Complete the text about electronics by choosing a word from the list: diodes, semiconductor, electrons, devices, germanium, transistors, integrated circuits, capacitors, silicon, resistors
Electronic circuits are built from basic components. 1) … are the most important components. They can be used to amplify the strength of a signal by converting a weak signal into a stronger one or to switch other circuits on or off. 2) … reduce the flow of 3) … through the circuit, adding resistance to that circuit. 4) … function as electronic valves allowing current to flow in only one direction. 5) … store electricity in order to smooth the flow. They can be charged and discharged. The two most common capacitors are ceramic and electrolytic. Most electronic devices use 6) … (IC) or microchips. Inside an IC is a very small piece of 7) … with circuits built in. Today, semiconductors are usually made of 8) … which is cheaper and easier to manufacture than 9) …. Researchers are constantly trying to reduce the size of transistors in order to reduce the size of 10) ….
TASK 10. Study the presentations shown by a teacher and provide a suitable description of each slide. Make up your own presentations on one of the topics covered within this course.
UNIT 16
Task 1.Study new words and word combinations.
| alter | ['lt] | изменять | |
| behavior | [b'hevjr] | поведение | |
| characterize | ['kærkt()raz] | характеризовать | |
| confinement | [kn'fanmnt] | ограничение, удержание | |
| dimension | [da'men(t)()n] | размер, измерение | |
| efficiency | ['f()n(t)s] | эффективность | |
| exhibit | [g'zbt ], [eg'zbt] | показывать | |
| implication | [mpl'ke()n] | вовлечение, привлечение | |
| issue | ['u ], ['sju] | вопрос | |
| layer | ['le] | уровень, слой | |
| magnitude | ['mægntjud] | величина | |
| matter | ['mæt] | вещество | |
| nanotechnology | нанотехнология | ||
| scale | [skel] | масштаб | |
| structure | ['strk] | структура | |
| technique | [tek'nik] | метод | |
| verify | ['verfa] | подтверждать |
TASK 2. Read the text and translate it from English into Russian.
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology, shortened to “nanotech”, is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size. Nanostructures are assembled a single atom, molecule, or atomic layer at a time, as part of a vast new field of research in nanomaterials synthesis and assembly.
Generally, structures smaller than a nanometer tend to behave much like individual atoms, while materials that are hundreds of nanometers or greater in size exhibit properties of the continuum. Nanoscale properties and behaviors can be quite different as the result of unique physical and chemical interactions. The superiority of surfaces and interfaces, and the physical confinement of matter and energy, can alter nearly all properties of materials (physical, chemical, optical, etc.), and thus produce extraordinary new behaviors. Examples include generating light from dark materials, improving efficiencies of catalysts by orders of magnitude, and turning soft and ductile materials like gold into solids with hardness equivalent to bearing steel.
The final ingredient to nanotechnology is the ability to characterize and predict nanoscale properties and behavior. New experimental tools that are able to “see”, “touch”, and measure the behavior of individual nanostructures allow scientists and engineers to identify subtle differences in structure and properties that control nanoscale properties. By coupling new experimental techniques with advanced computational tools, researchers can develop, verify, and refine models and simulations that will allow the full potential for nanotechnology to be explored.
There has been much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has the potential to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.
TASK 3. Read the sentences and decide whether the following statements are true or false.
1. Nanotechnology is creating an entirely new class of materials and devices with unique and potentially very useful properties. 2. The physical dimensions of nanotechnology are small, spanning from just a few to tens of nanometers. 3. Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to investigating whether we can directly control matter on the atomic scale. 4. Nowadays current interest in nanotechnology is not high. 5. The field of nanotechnology is developing slowly as are its practical application. 6. Unique nanoscale properties are already being used to increase energy efficiency and improve healthcare.
TASK 4. Answer the following questions and retell the text.
1. What is nanotechnology? 2. What does nanotechnology deal with? 3. Which properties do materials hundreds of nanometers in size exhibit? 4. What is the final ingredient to nanotechnology? 5. What is the application of nanotechnology?
UNIT 17
Task 1.Study new words and word combinations.
| reduction | [r'dk()n] | сокращение | |
| catalytic | [kæt'ltk] | каталитический | |
| ion | ['an] | ион | |
| opaque | ['pek] | непрозрачный | |
| transparent | [træn(t)'spær()nt] | прозрачный | |
| insoluble | [n'sljbl] | нерастворимый | |
| inert | ['nt] | инертный | |
| catalyst | ['kæt()lst] | катализатор | |
| colloid | ['kld] | коллоидный | |
| solar | ['sul] | солнечный | |
| incorporate | [n'kp()rt] | включать | |
| quantum effects | ['kwntm] | квантовые эффекты | |
| ratio | ['reu] | отношение |
TASK 2. Read and translate the text.
LARGER TO SMALLER: A MATERIALS PERSPECTIVE
A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, quantum effects become dominant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so called quantum realm. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. Mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterial. Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances become transparent (copper); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); insoluble materials become soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.
TASK 3. Find in the text English word-combinations corresponding to the following Russian ones:
Сокращение размера частиц;изменять электронные свойства твердых частиц; изменять физические свойства материалов; исследования в наномеханике; механические свойства наносистем; взаимодействие наноматериалов с биоматериалами; уменьшать материалы до наноуровня; превращать непрозрачные вещества в прозрачные; быть инертным; служить мощным химическим катализатором на наноуровне.
TASK 4. Complete the following sentences:
1. Quantum effects become dominant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically at distances of …. 2. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred to …. 3. Mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in …. 4. Opaque substances reduced to the nanoscale become …. 5. Stable materials reduced to the nanoscale turn …. 6. Insoluble materials reduced to the nanoscale become …. 7. Gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as ….
TASK 5. Answer the following questions:
1. Why do statistical mechanical effects and quantum mechanical effects become pronounced? 2. When do quantum effects become dominant? 3. What does nanomechanics study? 4. Do materials reduced to the nanoscale exhibit the same properties as on a macroscale? 5. When can gold serve as a potent chemical catalyst?
TASK 6. Read and translate the text.
NANOMATERIALS
This includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.
Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.
Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see nanomedicine.
Nanoscale materials are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional Silicon solar cells
Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the next generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological imaging; see quantum dots.
TASK 7. Compare two columns of words and find Russian equivalents (from the right column) to the following English words (from the left one):
| 1.уникальные свойства материалов | a. carbon nanotrubes |
| 2.быть полезным в нанотехнологии | b.commercial application of nanotechnology |
| 3. углеродные нанотрубки | c. fullerenes |
| 4. фулерены | d. new-generation materials |
| 5. коммерческое применение нанотехнологии | e. to develop nanomedicine |
| 6. развивать наномедицину | f. unique properties of materials |
| 7. продукты нового поколения | g. to be useful in nanotechnology |
TASK 8. Find antonyms (from the left column) to the words (from the right one):
| 1.to decrease | a. to assemble |
| 2. reduction | b. to increase |
| 3. to separate | c. extending |
| 4. opaque | d. soluble |
| 5. insoluble | e. transparent |
UNIT 18
TASK 1. Study new words and word combinations.
| coaxial cable | [ku'æksl] | коаксиальный кабель | |
| optical fibre | оптоволокно | ||
| means of communication | средство коммуникации | ||
| physical media | ['fzk()l] | физическая среда | |
| twisted | кручёный; витой | ||
| surround | окружать | ||
| shield | [ild] | (защитный) экран, экранировать | |
| bend | сгибать | ||
| strands of pure glass | [pju] | стеклопряжа | |
| interference | [nt'frns] | помехи | |
| capture | ['kæp] | захват, захватывать, сбор данных, собирать данные; | |
| node | узел | ||
| route | 1) путь, маршрут 2) направление связи | ||
| switch | 1) переключатель 2) коммутатор | ||
| exchange | обмен, обменивать |
TASK 2. Read the introductory information about communication and working in pairs take turns asking and answering the following questions.
Communication has always played a crucial role in human societies and over time its forms have evolved through the progression of technology, transforming itself into telecommunication. The telegraph, the telephone, the radio, the television, the radar, the fax and, more recently, the computer are all devices which were invented to communicate using electromagnetic waves. Thanks to them, we can transmit texts, pictures, sounds and images and reach everyone in any part of the world.
1. How often do you use different means of communication? 2. What do you use them for? 3. Who do you use them with? 4. What are their advantages? 5. Can you think of any risk connected with their use?
TASK 3. Look at the diagram and complete the text about telecommunication systems.
Telecommunication systems need means for the 1) … of any information, which is translated into electromagnetic waves that connect the transmitter to the receiver. These means can be physical media, such as 2) …, or radio 3) …, which are transmitted by air. Different kind of cables can be used. The simplest communication cables consist of a single pair of 4) … twisted together. Other types are 5) … cables and optical 6) …. Radio waves need 7) … to be transmitted and sometimes 8) … are necessary for long-distance transmission.
TASK 4. Read the text about the different kinds of transmission media and complete the table.
GROUND TRANSMISSION
Wires provide a cheap and effective means of communication that was predominant in the past. Wires, which are made out of copper and insulated with plastic, can be single or twisted, and they are used mainly in telephone and computer networks.
Coaxial cables consist of an inner conductor insulated with plastic and surrounded by a woven copper shield. They are used in television and radio as these cables can support about 60 channels. The inner copper cable is insulated to protect the wires from bending and crushing and to reduce the noises.
Optical fibres are used in place of simple copper wires to carry larger amounts of information. They consist of strands of pure glass as thin as a human hair.
Signals travel along fibres with less loss and without any electromagnetic interference. As they permit transmission over longer distances and at a higher speed, they are used in communication systems, in some medical instruments and in a wide variety of sensing devices.
AIR TRANSMISSION
Antennas were invented to capture radio signals and convert them into electrical signals through the receiver. They can also receive electrical signals from the transmitter and convert them into radio signals.
These electric devices, which provide information at a cheap rate, are essential to all equipment that uses radio. They are used in systems such as radio and television broadcasting, radar, mobile phones, and satellite communications, for which they are in form of dishes.
Satellites are machines launched into space to move around Earth or another celestial body. A communications satellite is basically a station which receives signals in a given frequency and then retransmits them at a different frequency to avoid interference problems. The first satellite was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. There are different types of satellites: low-orbit satellites, which travel at about 300 km from the Earth and observe the planet, providing accurate information about agriculture, pollution and weather forecasting; medium-altitude satellites, which travel at about 9000-18000 km from the Earth and are used in telecommunications.
| Means of communication | Material | Function | Type of signal (ground or air) | Advantages |
| wires | ||||
| coaxial cables | ||||
| optical cables | ||||
| antennas | ||||
| satellites |
TASK 5. Read the text about networks and answer the questions.
A network is a group of computers linked together. It consists of at least two computers joined by cables on the same desk or same office, but it can also mean thousands of computers across the world. The users of a network can share hardware (scanner, printer, fax machine, etc.), access data in other people's computers and run other programs stored in the network although not installed on their own computer.
A network consists of:
• nodes, that is to say different computers and devices;
• a connecting medium, such as cables or a wireless connection;
• routers, which are special computers enabled to send messages;
• switches, that is to say devices which help to select a specific path to follow.
Networks can be connected in different ways according to the area they cover.
A LAN (Local Area Network) is generally located in a limited space, such as a building or a campus. On the contrary, a WAN (Wide Area Network) operates in a larger area and it can reach most of the world, so it could be described as a collection of LANs all over the world.
The exchange of information in a network is controlled by communications protocols, which define the formats and rules that computers must follow when talking to one another. Well-known communications protocols are Ethernet, which is a family of protocols used in LANs, and the Internet Protocol Suite, which is used in any computer network.
Computer networks offer many advantages. For example, they facilitate communication, allowing people to send emails and texts, make phone/Video calls and videoconference. Furthermore, networks allow people to share files, data, and other types of information as users may access data and information stored on other computers in the network.
On the other hand, networks may be difficult to set up and may be insecure as computer hackers can send viruses or computer worms to the net computer. They may also interfere with other technologies, as power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication and access technology such as ADSL.
1. What does a network consist of? 2. What is a router? 3. What is a LAN? 4. What is a WAN? 5. What is the function of communications protocols? 6. What is Ethernet used for? 7. What are the advantages of using a network? 8. What are the disadvantages of using a network?
TASK 6. Refer back to the text and write a summary of the components, pros and cons of networks and describe a situation in which a network can be very useful.
Task 7. Read the texts about the different network topologies and fill in the gaps with the words in the box. Then listen and check.
| Nodes, circle, network, pathway, affect, configure, small, destination, star, failure, exchanging, backbone |
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology is the layout of the interconnections of the nodes