The experiment of Beadle and Tatum proved that each enzyme was encoded by one gene. T

7 Some years later mutant Neurospora was used that could not grow unless citrulline was added to the medium. F: “A few years later, to determine the series of chemical reactions by which normal molds synthesize the amino acid arginine, biochemists used mutant Neurospora that couldn’t grow on minimal medium unless arginine was added.”

8 The experimental mutant mold lacked many enzymes. F: “the researchers found that the mutant lacked a single enzyme that catalysed one specific step in arginine synthesis.”

Unit 8

Inheritance

Introduction

Read the following passage and listen to the story about Gregor Mendel’s life. Find six false facts in the story you hear.

An original text in Student’s Book:

Before settling down as a monk in the monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn (now Brno, in the Czech Republic), Gregor Mendel tried his hand at several pursuits, including health care and teaching. To earn his teaching certificate, Mendel attended the University of Vienna for 2 years, where he studied botany and mathematics, among other subjects. This training proved crucial to his later experiments, which were the foundation for the modern science of genetics. At St. Thomas in the mid-1800s, Mendel carried out both his monastic duties and a groundbreaking series of experiments on inheritance in the common edible pea. Although Mendel worked without knowledge of genes or chromosomes, we can more easily follow his experiments after a brief look at some modern genetic concepts.

Six false facts are given in bold:

Before settling down as a monk in the monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn, (now Brno, in the Czech Republic), Gregor Mendel tried his hand at several pursuits, including teaching health care. To earn his medical certificate, Mendel attended the University of Vienna for 2 years, where he studied botany and mathematics only. This training proved very important to his later experiments, which were the foundation for the modern science of genetics. At St. Thomas in the mid-1700s, Mendel carried out both his monastic duties and broke ground in a series of experiments on inheritance in the common edible pea. Although Mendel knew little about genes or chromosomes, we can more easily follow his experiments after a brief look at some modern genetic concepts.

Unit 9

Fungi

Introduction

How do fungi affect humans? Listen to the text and answer the question.

Edible mushrooms are the most obvious fungal contribution to human welfare, but fungi have many other, less visible but more important impacts as well. Many of these impacts are positive, and some fungal benefits extend far beyond mere gastronomic concerns. For example, as decomposers, fungi make an incalculable contribution to ecosystems. The extracellular digestive activities of many fungi liberate nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus compounds and minerals that can be used by plants. If fungi and bacteria were suddenly to disappear, the consequences would be disastrous. Nutrients would remain locked in the bodies of dead plants and animals, the recycling of nutrients would grind to a halt, soil fertility would rapidly decline, and waste and organic debris would accumulate. In short, ecosystems would collapse.

Although the health of ecosystems depends on the relentless nature of fungal feeding, penetrating fungal filaments can have adverse consequences as well. Parasitic fungi, for instance, cause disease. In humans, such fungi cause a range of diseases such as ringworm and athlete’s foot, which infect the skin; valley fever and histoplasmosis, which infect the lungs; and common vaginal yeast infections. Fungi also cause the majority of plant diseases. The fungi that cause chestnut blight and Dutch elm disease have drastically reduced American chestnut and elm tree populations. Fungal parasites also result in billions of dollars in crop losses annually from diseases such as corn smut.

The fungal impact on agriculture is not entirely negative, however. Fungal parasites that attack insects and other arthropod pests can be an important ally in pest control. Farmers who wish to reduce their dependence on toxic and expensive chemical pesticides are increasingly turning to biological methods of pest control, including the application of “fungal pesticides”. Fungal pathogens are currently used to control a variety of pests, including termites, rice weevils, tent caterpillars, aphids, and citrus mites.

Fungi, of course, also make an important contribution to human nutrition. This contribution goes far beyond the obvious use of wild and cultivated mushrooms. Other fungi, such as the rare and prized truffle, are also consumed directly. Of greater importance, however, are the less visible manifestations of fungal activities. In particular, fungi are responsible for making bread rise, for converting grape juice to wine, for the distinctive flavor of many cheeses, and for the bubbles (and alcohol) in beer. Our diets would certainly be a lot duller without the help we get form fungal partners.

Unit 10

The Evolution of Hormones

Introduction

Now listen to the summary of key concepts concerning the endocrine system of the animal body and get ready to retell it.

Summary of Key Concepts

What are the characteristics of animal hormones?

A hormone is a chemical secreted by cells in one part of the body that is transported in the bloodstream to another part of the body, where it affects the activity of specific target cells. Four types of molecules are known to act as hormones: peptides, amino-acid derivatives, steroids, and prostaglandins.

Most hormones act on their target cells in one of two ways: (1) Peptide hormones and amino-acid derivatives bind to receptors on the surface of target cells and activate intracellular second messengers, such as cyclic AMP. The second messengers then alter the metabolism of the cell. (2) Steroid hormones diffuse through the plasma membranes of the target cells and bind with receptor proteins in the cytoplasm. The hormone-receptor complex travels to the nucleus and promotes the transcription of specific genes. Thyroid hormones also penetrate the plasma membrane but diffuse into the nucleus, where they bind to receptors associated with the chromosomes and influence gene transcription.

Hormone action is commonly regulated through negative feedback, a process in which a hormone causes changes that inhibit further secretion of that hormone.

What are the structures and functions of the mammalian endocrine system?

Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, which are clusters of cells embedded within a network of capillaries. Hormones are secreted into the extracellular fluid and diffuse into the capillaries. The major endocrine glands of the human body are the hypothalamus – pituitary complex, the thyroid and parathyroid glands, the pancreas, the sex organs, and the adrenal glands. Prostaglandins, unlike other hormones, are not secreted by discrete glands but are synthesized and released by many cells of the body. Other endocrine organs include the pineal gland, thymus, kidneys, heart, and the stomach and small intestine.

Unit 11

The Immune Response

Introduction

What are the key characteristics of the immune response? Listen to the text and say whether the following sentences are true or false.

Phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, the inflammatory response, and fever are all nonspecific defenses; their role is to prevent or overcome any microbial invasion of the body. Unfortunately, however, these nonspecific defenses are not impregnable. When they fail to do the job, the body mounts a highly specific immune response directed against the particular organism that has successfully invaded the body.

The essential features of the immune response to infection were recognized more than 2000 years ago by the Greek historian Thucydides. He observed that occasionally someone would contract a disease, recover, and never catch that particular disease again – the person had become immune. With rare exceptions, however, immunity to one disease confers no protection against other diseases. Thus, the immune system attacks one type of microbe, overcomes it, and provides future protection against that microbe but no others. This is why we refer to the immune response as a specific defense against invasion.

The immune system consists of about 2 trillion lymphocytes, a kind of white blood cell. Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood and lymph, though many are clustered in specific organs, particularly the thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen. The immune response arises from interactions among the various types of lymphocytes and the molecules that they produce. The theatre of the immune response has a large cast of characters and is difficult to follow without a program. The table below provides a brief overview of the major actors and their roles.

The key actors in the immune response are two types of lymphocytes, called B cells and T cells. Like all white blood cells, B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes arise from precursor cells in the bone marrow. Some of these lymphocyte precursors are released into the bloodstream and come to rest in the thymus, where they complete their differentiation into T (for thymus) cells. In contrast, B cells differentiate in the bone marrow itself. The two cell types play quite different roles in the immune response, but immune responses produced by both B cells and T cells consist of the same three fundamental steps: (1) recognizing the invader, (2) launching a successful attack to overcome the invader, and (3) retaining a memory of the invader to ward off future infections.

1 The Greek physician Thucydides recognized the essential features of the immune response to the infection more than 2000 years ago. F: physician

2 Immunity to one disease always confers no protection against other diseases. F: always

3 We refer to the immune response as a specific defense against invasion. T

4 Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood. F: and lymph

5 T cells and B cells play similar roles in the immune response. F: similar

Unit 12

Animal Behaviour

Introduction

I. Listen to the text and determine differences of innate and learned behaviour.

Although all animal behaviour is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, it can be useful to distinguish between behaviours whose development is not highly dependent on external factor and behaviours that require more extensive environmental stimuli in order to develop behaviours in the first category are sometimes designated as innate and can be performed properly the first time an animal encounters the appropriate stimulus. Innate behaviours include kineses, in which animals orient by varying the speed of essentially random movements, stopping when they encounter favorable conditions. In contrast, taxes are directed movements toward or away from specific stimuli. A fixed action pattern is a complex innate behaviour elicited by a specific stimulus called a releaser. Learning can in some cases modify the releasers for fixed action patterns.

Behaviour that changes in response to input from an animal’s social and physical environment is said to be learned. Learning is especially adaptive in environments that are changing and unpredictable, and learning can modify innate behaviour to make it more appropriate.

Among the diverse array of learning methods are imprinting, habituation, conditioning, trial and error, and insight. Imprinting is a special kind of learning that occurs during a limited sensitive period early in life. This form of simple learning typically involves attachment between parent and offspring or learning the features of a future mate.

Habituation is the decline in response to a harmless stimulus that is repeated frequently. It commonly modifies innate escape responses or defensive responses.

During classical conditioning, an animal learns to make a reflexive response, such as withdrawal or salivation, to a stimulus that did not originally elicit that response. During operant conditioning, an animal learns to make a new response, such as pressing a button, to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment.

Trial-and-error learning can modify innate behaviour or can produce new behaviour as a result of rewards and punishments provided by the environment.

Insight, the most complex form of learning, can be considered a form of mental trial-and-error learning. An animal showing insight makes a new and adaptive response to an unfamiliar situation.

Although the distinction between innate and learned behaviour is conceptually useful, the distinction is not sharp in naturally occurring behaviours. In virtually all behaviours, learning and instinct interact to produce adaptive behaviour. Certain types of learning, such as imprinting, occur instinctively, during a rigidly defined time span. Instinctive responses are typically modified by experience. Learning allows animals to modify these innate responses so that they occur only with appropriate stimuli.

Список литературы

1. Audesirk, Gerald, Audesirk, Teresa. Biology: Life on Earth. Fifth Edition. - University of Colorado at Denver. Prentice Hall, 1999.

2. Lingvo 10. Англо-русский электронный словарь. ABBYY, 2005.

3. Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. Third Edition. – Oxford University Press, 2005.

4. Биология для поступающих в МГУ. – Изд-во МГУ, 2002.

5. Кемп П., Армс К. Введение в биологию. – Мир, М., 1988.

6. Материалы сайта www.elementy.ru.

7. Новый большой англо-русский словарь. - В 3-х тт. - Под. ред. Ю.Д.Апресяна. - М., 1993.

8. Шахова Н.И. Learn to read science. Курс английского для аспирантов и научных работников. – М., 2005.

Англо-русский словарь

acorn желудь

acquire возникать из питательной среды

ACTH адренокортикотропный гормон, гормон коры надпочечников

adapt приспосабливаться

adenosine diphosphate АДФ

adenosine triphosphate АТФ

adrenal medulla мозговое вещество надпочечника, хромаффинная ткань

aeons века

aerobe [¢eərəub] аэроб

affect воздействовать

alert тревога

alga [¢ælgə](pl. algae) водоросли

allele (dominant, recessive) аллель (доминантный, рецессивный)

ameliorate улучшать

anaerobe [¢ænərəub] анаэроб

appropriate подходящий, соответствующий; адекватный

arthropod членистоногое

assault нападение, атака

assemblage скопление; группа

athlete’s foot грибковое заболевание ног, микоз

atrial natriuretic peptide атриальный натрийуретический пептид

autosome аутосома

B cell базофильный инсулоцит (В-клетка)

base-pairing rule закон спаривания оснований

basidium (pl. basidia) базидия

beak клюв

become obvious становиться очевидным

biosphere биосфера

blood clotting свертывание крови

bond связь

bone marrow костный мозг

boon благо

breakdown распад

broth бульон; жидкая среда

bug клоп; мелкое насекомое

burrow нора

by-product побочный продукт

calcium [¢kælsıəm] кальций

Cambrian period кембрий

сarpel плодолистик

cast отпечаток

catalyst катализатор

catalyze катализировать

catalyzed reaction катализируемая реакция

centriole центриоль

chestnut blight каштановая гниль

chirp чирикать, щебетать

chitin хитин

chlorine хлор

chloroplast хлоропласт

cholecystokinin холецистокинин

chromatophore хроматофор

chromatophorotropic (гормон) меланоцитстимулирующий

cichlid fish цихлида

circulatory кровеносный

citrulline цитруллин

club fungi (basidiomycetes) базидиальные грибы, базидиомицеты

coach тренер, наставник; инструктор

coenzyme коэнзим

coiled скрученный, извитый

colour blindness цветовая слепота

community сообщество

compete

competition for survival and reproduction борьба за выживание и продолжение рода

complex organic molecule сложная органическая молекула

complementarity комплементарность

conditioning соперничать, конкурировать

conduct water from roots to leaves проводить воду от корней к листьям

confer даровать, давать

conquer завоевывать, покорять

conversion of matter and energy превращение веществ и энергии

convert переводить, трансформировать (из одного состояния в другое)

corrugate сморщенный

couple with связывать, ассоциировать

cricket сверчок

crop up неожиданно обнаруживаться; возникать

cross-fertilization перекрёстное оплодотворение

crossing over кроссинговер (перекрёст хромосом)

cyanobacteria [sa¢ıənəbæk¢tıərıə] цианобактерии

cytoplasm [¢saıtəplæzm] цитоплазма

decompose разлагаться

deftly ловко, искусно

dehydration synthesis [dı:haı¢dreıò(ə)n] дегидратационный синтез

deoxyribose дезоксирибоза

derive from происходить от

devastate истощать, опустошать, разорять

differential reproduction неравное размножение

differentiate отличаться, видоизменяться, приспосабливаться

diffuse диффундировать

digestive [dı¢dзestıv] tract пищеварительный тракт

dimple желобок, выемка

diploid диплоид

disaccharide [dıs¢əkəraıd] дисахарид

discrete раздельный, неслившийся

dissolve растворять(ся)

distinctively характерно

diverse [daı¢və:s]/ diversity разнообразный/разнообразие

drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP стимулировать синтез АТФ из АДФ

draw attention привлекать внимание

droppings экскременты

ductless не имеющий выводного протока

dung fungus сордария навозная (Sordaria fumicola)

dusting опыление

Dutch elm disease голландская болезнь вязов

dye краситель

edible pea горошек обыкновенный

efficient действенный

embedded вставленный, вкопанный, внедренный

emerge появляться; возникать

encode кодировать

encounter столкновение

endergonic reactions эндотермическая реакция

enriched with обогащенный

entropy энтропия

environmental extremes экстремальные условия окружающей среды

enzyme function функция фермента

epinephrine адреналин, эпинефрин

ergot спорынья

erythropoietin эритропоэтин

escape спасаться, избегать

evaporate испаряться

evolution by natural selection эволюция путем естественного отбора

evolutionary transformations эволюционные преобразования

exergonic reactions экзотермическая реакция

exocrine внешнесекреторный

expose открывать

extinction вымирание

fascinating удивительный

fertile плодородный

finch вьюрок

fit приспособленный

flow of matter круговорот веществ

flu strain штамм гриппа

follicle фолликул

foothold точка опоры; устойчивое положение

forensic судебный

fossil (remains) ископаемое

fungus (pl. fungi) [¢fΛngəs, ¢fΛndзı] гриб, плесень

fuse объединяться

gamete [¢gæmı:t] гамета

gauze марля, кисея

gene locus локус

generate порождать

generation поколение

genetic makeup генетический набор

genotype генотип

genus (pl. genera) род

German shepherd немецкая овчарка

germinate развиваться, прорастать

gill гимениальная пластинка, спороносный слой

give off energy выделять энергию

glucagon гипергликемический гормон поджелудочной железы

glucocorticoids глюкокортикоид

go extinct вымирать

groove углубление, впадина

gull чайка

habitat место/среда обитания

habituation привыкание (ослабление реакции при повторении воздействия стимула)

hamster хомяк

haploid гаплоид

hatch вылупляться, выводиться

helium гелий

hemoglobin [hı:məu¢gləubın] гемоглобин

hemorrhage кровоточить

heredity наследственность

heterozygous [het ərəu¢zıgəs] гетерозиготный

hind limbs задние конечности

histocompatibility гистосовместимость

histoplasmosis гистоплазмоз

homicide убийство

homologous nucleotide [¢nju:klıətaıd] гомологичный нуклеотид

homozygous гомозиготный

humanity человечество

hybrid [¢haıbrıd] гибрид

hyphae гифы

ignite воспламенять, зажигать

imperfect fungi (deuteromycetes) дейтеромицеты

impregnable неприступный; неуязвимый

incentive стимул

increase rapidly быстро возрастать

individual (n) (зд.) особь

inflammatory воспалительный

initiate начинать, приступать

innate врождённый; природный

insight инсайт

interaction взаимодействие

intruder непрошеный гость

invader захватчик, оккупант

invertebrates беспозвоночные

involve включать

iodine [¢aıəudı:n] йод

jar банка

juvenile молодой, юный

kinesis кинезис (движение)

lack backbone не иметь хорды

lacrimal слезный

leave offspring оставлять потомство

liberate высвобождать

linkage сцепление

living / non-living matter/ objects живая/неживая материя/объекты

lizard ящерица

luteinizing hormone лютеинизирующий гормон

lymphocyte [¢lımfəsaıt] лимфоцит

macrophage гистиоцит, макрофаг

maggot личинка насекомого

magnesium магний

maintain the level of pH поддерживать уровень pH

maintain a population поддерживать жизнь популяции

mate спариваться

measles [mi:zlz] корь

meiosis [mı¢əusıs] мейоз

Mendel’s law of segregation закон расщепления Менделя

minced измельченный

mislead вводить в заблуждение

modification изменение

mold [¢məuld] плесень

monosaccharide моносахарид

morel сморчок

mRNA (messenger RNA) иРНК (информационная РНК)

multicellular многоклеточная

mumps свинка

mushroom (v) внезапно и быстро вырасти

mutualistic мутуалистический

mycelium [maı¢sı:lıəm] грибница

mycorrhiza микориза

natural population естественная популяция

nematode, roundworm нематода, круглый червь

nutrients питательные вещества

observe наблюдать

observer наблюдатель

obtain resources добывать ресурсы

organelle органелла

organic molecule органическая молекула

origin of species происхождение видов

originally изначально

originate появляться, происходить

ovary яичник

overall genetic composition of a population общий генетический состав популяции

oxygen-starved лишенный кислорода

oxytocin окситоцин

ozone layer озоновый слой

Paleozoic era палеозой

parathormone гормон околощитовидной железы, паратиреоидный гормон

parental generation родительское поколение

pass on genetic differences передавать генетические отличия

pathway путь

peat bog торфяное болото

perform a (single) function выполнять (общую) функцию

petal [¢petl] лепесток

petrified окаменевший

pest вредитель

phagocytic [¢fægəusaıtık] фагоцитарный

phenotype фенотип

phosphorus фосфор

photosynthetic organism фотосинтезирующий организм

phylum тип

plant resin древесная смола

plasma membrane плазматическая мембрана

plasmid плазмида

pollen пыльца

polymerase полимераза

polysaccharide полисахарид

population популяция

posterior pituitary hormones гормоны задней доли гипофиза

potassium калий

prebiotic до возникновения жизни

Precambrian period докембрий

precursor cell клетка-предшественник

predator хищник

preserve жертва

prickly pear cactus опунция (вид кактуса)

primeval [praı¢mı:v(ə)l] Earth первобытная Земля

primordial первобытный

“primordial soup” «первичный бульон»

proofbreading исправление ошибок (при копировании матрицы)

properties свойства

provide обеспечивать

puffball дождевик

Punnett square method (by R.C.Punnett) метод Пуннетта

reach / achieve high concentrations достигать высоких концентраций

reactant molecule молекула-реагент

reduce сокращать

relatively относительно

release высвобождать

releaser пусковой механизм; пусковой раздражитель; стимул, вызывающий осуществление инстинктивного действия

remain constant сохраняться постоянным

remnant остаток

rennin ренин, химозин

replication репликация, ауторепродукция

reproduce воспроизводиться

requisite требуемый

resemble напоминать

reserve заповедник

reside in the cytoplasm находиться в цитоплазме

respiratory distress расстройства внешнего дыхания

retina сетчатка

revamp перестраивать, реконструировать

reveal обнаруживать, показывать

reverse transcriptase обратная транскриптаза (РНК-зависимая ДНК-полимераза)

ringworm обусловленный красным трихофитоном микоз

roam бродить

roan чалый

rock ledge уступ скалы

rudimentary рудиментарные

rust ржавчинный гриб

sac fungi (ascomycetes) аскомицеты

scholarship стипендия

scratch ссадина, царапина

seasonal molting сезонная линька

secretin оксикринин, секретин

sediments осадочных породах

self-fertilization самоопыление

sequence последовательность

septum септа, перегородка

set of substances комплекс веществ

severe суровый

sex-linked сцепленный с полом

shallow sea мелкое море

shed сбрасывать (кожу, рога)

shelf fungus (monkey-stool) берёзовый гриб, чага

shell раковина, панцирь

Silurian period силур

single-stranded однонитевой, одноцепочечный (о нуклеиновых кислотах)

smut головнёвый гриб

sodium натрий

soft fruit rot плодовая гниль

sparsely редко, негусто

spawn нереститься

spectator зритель

sperm семя

spleen селезёнка

spontaneously спонтанно

sporangium [spə¢rændзıəm] (pl. sporangia) спорангий

stamen [¢steımen] тычинка

steam пар

straightforward прямолинейный

stud усеивать, усыпать

subcellular structure субклеточная структура

substrate molecule молекула субстрата

subvert разрушать

succumb погибать

sulphur [¢sΛlfə] сера

survival of the fittest выживание наиболее приспособленного

swab off смазывать

swarm кишеть

T cell Т-клетка

tadpole головастик

taxis таксис

test cross опытный гибрид

thymine тимин

thyroxine тироксин

tissue ткань

tortoise сухопутная черепаха

trigger инициировать, дать начало

trisomy трисомия

true-breeding разведение гомозигот

turtle морская черепаха

undergo a series of reactions проходить через последовательность реакций

unerringly точно, безошибочно

universe вселенная

UV light / radiation ультрафиолетовый свет / излучение

valence валентность

variation in traits различия в признаках

vascular васкулярный

vast increase значительное увеличение

vessel сосуд, склянка

via [¢vaıə] посредством

vital жизненный

ward off отражать, отвращать (удар, опасность)

waste products отходы

water loss потери воды

waterproof coating водонепроницаемое покрытие

water-soluble водорастворимый

withstand противостоять

woodpecker дятел

worm червь

X-ray diffraction дифракция рентгеновских лучей

yeast (baker’s yeast, brewer’s yeast) дрожжи (пекарские, пивные)

yield давать урожай, производить

zygospore ascus (pl. asci [¢æsaı]) зигоспора

zygote fungi (zygomycetes) зигомицеты

Оглавление

Предисловие3

Unit 1. Life and Levels of Organization of Living Matter 6

Grammar: Passive Voice

Unit 2. Biological Molecules 21

Grammar: The Use of Passive Structures

Unit 3. Energy Flow in the Life of a Cell 31

Grammar: Ved[2] Forms

Unit 4. Principles of Evolution 39

Grammar: Ving[3] Forms

Unit 5. The History of Life on Earth 52

Grammar: -Ing and –ed Participles; -ing and –ed Participle Constructions

Unit 6. Biotechnology 61

Grammar: Infinitive

Unit 7. The Double Helix 77

Grammar: Modal Verbs: Can and Could

Unit 8. Inheritance 91

Grammar: Modal Verbs: May and Might

Unit 9. Fungi 108

Grammar: Modal Verbs: Must, Need to, Have to and Be to

Unit 10. The Evolution of Hormones 122

Grammar: Modal Verbs: Should and Ought to

Unit 11. The Immune Response 134

Grammar: Modal Verbs: Shall and Will

Unit 12. Animal Behaviour 145

Grammar: Conditionals

Приложение156

Список литературы 174

Англо-русский словарь175

[1]Упражнение цитируется по учебнику “Learn to Read Science”, ex.8, 9, p. 67.

[2] Ved means ‘past participle’.

[3] Ving means ‘present participle’.