Word-building in Old English
Apart from taking words from other languages, there were internal ways of enriching the vocabulary - word-building techniques. These were: morphological - creating new words by adding new morphemes; syntactic - building new words from syntactic groups; semantic - developing new meanings of the existing words.
Morphological word-building is the way of adding morphemes to make new words, know as affixation. Here we distinguish two major groups of affixes - prefixes and suffixes, infixes being non-characteristic for the English language.So affixation comprises suffixation and prefixation. Suffix is a morpheme that is added to the root-morpheme and which modifies its lexical meaning. Additionally, they may (and in the majority of cases do) transfer the word in to another part of speech. In this treatment they will be classified according to the principle of what part of speech is formed by means of this or that suffix.
Noun-suffix -ere was used to form masculine nouns from stems of nouns and verbs, denoted the profession or the doer of the action (it is related to Gothic -areis, Lat.-arius):fiscere (fisherman), wrltere (writer), bосеre (bookman), fnjelere (fowler, bird-catcher), dröwere (sufferer), jedeahtere(councellor), rypere (robber). The corresponding feminine suffix was -estre: bsecestre (woman baker), spinnestre (spinner), witejestre (prophetess), myltestre (prostitute).
The suffix -end was used to form masculine nouns from verb stems (originally the suffix of Participle II): freond(friend), deinend (judge), feond(hater), haelend (savior), lidend (traveller), waldend (ruler), freotend (sailor), ceasterbüend (citizen of a fortified town). Suffix -inj – was masculine. It was used to derive patronimics and toform emotionally coloured diminutives: cyninj (king), eedelinj (son of a nobleman), dincdferdinj (son of öincöferö), Eanuwulfinj (son of Eanwulf), Wzennundinj (son of Wasrmund), eanninj (poor fellow).
The suffix linj- variant of -inj; forms prevalently emotionally marked nouns from adjectives: deorlinj (darling), lytlinj (baby). The emotional connotation was also negative: hyrlinj (hireling). The suffix -en formed feminine nouns from noun stems: jyden (goddess),fyxen (female fox, vixen), maejden (maiden). Suffixes -nis, -nes formed feminine abstract nouns from adjectives: jödnis (goodness), beorhtnes (brightness), hdlijnes (holiness),
A group of derivational morphemes used in Old English may be called semi- or half-suffixes: they originated from nouns and still preserve to some extent their original meaning (compare the status of -man in policeman, spokesman, sportsman etc.): -dan (the noun Ja» meant 'doom' )freodan (freedom), wisdän wisdom), wölulöm (unjust judgment), swlcdctn (betrayal); -läc (the noun läc meant 'gift, game') formed abstract nouns: rcofläc (robbery), wedldc (wedlock), sein Id с (fantasy, ghost - from sclnan - shine, appear), wrohtldc (calumny); -rseden (the noun газсіеп meant 'arrangement, agreement'): fremdrseden (friendship), mannrseden (faithfulness); now we find it in such nouns as hatered, kindred; -scipe/scype (the verb scieppan meant 'to shape, create') formed abstract and collective nouns from noun stems: hkifordscipe (lordship), freondscipe (friendship), folcscipe (people), deodscype (people, population), jebeorscipe (conviviality, festivity). The suffix -had (the original noun had meant 'title, rank') formed abstract nouns from noun stems: cildluid (childhood), meejdlwd (maidenhood, virginity), weoruldhcid (secular life).
While noun-forming suffixes might retain the stem within its former category simply adding some meaning to it, adjective-forming suffixes invariably change the part of speech appurtenance of the stem. They are very rarely if ever added to adjective-stems but form adjectives that represent some quality in relation to some notion which is expressed in a noun or a verb: -ede (is related to Participle II suffix -d): höcede (hooked), drJheafdede (three-headed); -en: jylden (golden), wyllen (woolen), Ііагдеп (heathen).
Adverb-forming suffix -e was usually added to adjective stems; this was a productive way of word-building: wul- wide (wide - widely), hmj-lanje (long - for a long time), faest -fseste (firm, fast - firmly), histfullic -lustfulUce (willing - willingly), fxstlic -fssstüce (steadfast - steadfastly). södlic - södlice (true - truly), lahlic (lawful) - lahlice (lawfully)
Verbs were formed by adding the suffix -an/ian, -ettan to noun, adjective and adverb stems, sometimes this process was accompanied by adding prefixes: hdlja (saint) - hdljian (consecrate); jeliiersum (obedient) -jehlersumian (obey), clalne (clean) - clLensian (to cleanse), Id д (hate, injury) - lädettan (to hate), hdl (whole, healthy) - hälettan (to greet, to wish health), wyrse (worse) - wyrsian (worsen), yfel (bad)-yfelian (worsen).
The use of prefixes in Old English was a productive way of forming new words, and their number exceeds that of prefixes in modern times. They were especially frequent with the verbs:
jdn - go
d-jdn - go away
be-jan - go round
fore-jdn - precede
ofer-jdn - traverse
je-jan - go, go away
settan - to place
a-settan - to place
be- settan - to appoint
for- settan - to obstruct
fore- settan - to place before
je- settan - to populate
of- settan - to afflict
on- settan - to oppress
to- settan - to dispose
nn- settan - to put down
wid- settan - to resist
Comparing the two sets of derivatives, one can see that the same prefix may add different shades of meaning to the stem. If such prefixes as fore- or over- are more or less transparent (their original prepositional meanings are preserved), one can hardly explain why are so different additional shades of meaning in the pairs jdn - be-jdn and settan - besettan. So the meaning of the prefix can be specified only in some cases, and as the same prefix may be added to several parts of speech, there is no point in classifying them along any line. Suffice it to say that the most frequent and important prefixes are: ā- a-arincan (to drown), ateon (to draw up), arlsan (to arise), dbujan (to bow to), afandian (to examine), afön (to receive), dhelpan (to help), dslacian (to become slack), adrasfan (to drive out, exile); ast- setfleon (to escape), asthrihan (to touch), astsacan (to deny), aetlutian (to hide from), astwitan (to reproach), astwindan (to escape from); be- becuman (to happen to), bestri(e)pan (to bestrip, plunder), bethbcan (to show), beswican (to deceive), beascian (to ask for advice), bemetan (to measure), bestelan (to steal away), behatan (to promise); je- (perfective) jewrltan (to write), jesettan (to populate), jewinnan (to win), jewendan (to proceed), jewlfian (to marry), jetwaefan (to separate); je- (with nouns collective, abstract meaning) jetrywd(loyalty, troth), jedanc (thought, mind), jeweald (power, control), jebrööor (brothers; comp. Ukr. браття), jebtero (behaviour, bearing), jeldc (tumult, commotion), jefeolit (battle, fight), jesyntu (prosperity); for- (adds the idea of destruction or loss) fordön (to destroy), fomiman (to take away), forlaFtan (to leave), forseon (to overlook, neglect), іо Herman (to reduce to poverty), forbseman (to burn up), forbeodan (to forbid), forbujan (to avoid), forcuman (to overcome), forhabban (to abstain from); in- inbrinjan (bringin), inbiyrdnis (inspiration), indufan (to dive in), injan j (entrance, beginning), in jedanc (hidden thought); mis- (negative) misllcian (to dislike), misbeodan (to ill-use), mislimpan (to go wrong), miscwedan (curse), mishieran (to disobey), misdyncan (to give a wrong idea); of- ofslean (to kill), ofsceamian (to put to shame), ofteon (to deprive), ofdyncan (to displease), ofunnan (to refuse to grant), ofsprinj (offspring); ofer- (over) oferseon (to oversee), ofercuman (to overcome), oferstljan (to rise over), oferferan (to traverse); on- ondrzedan (to dread), oncndwan (to perceive), onfindan (to discover), onsfapan (to fall asleep), onstellan (to establish), onlaenan (to lend), onlihtan (to give light), oiiseon (to look on) od- odfeallan (to fall away), odfleon (to flee), odsacan (to deny), odwitan (to charge); un- (negative) uncUd{unknown), unforworht (innocent), unfrid (enmity), unlaju (violations of law), unlytel (not little), unscrydan (undress), uncrseft (evil practice), undsed (evil deed), unjylde (excessive tax), unrim (countless), unrilu (injustice), unweder (storm, bad weather); under- underjietan (to understand), underfön (to receive), underöeodan (to subject to), undersceotan (to intercept); ut- (out) utfidan (to ride out), utrassan (to rush out); wid- widewedan (to reply), widjripan (to grapple), widmetan (to compare), widascan (to refuse), widlmbban (to resist), widscorian (to refuse).
Composition was one more way of word-building in Old English. The essence of composition as syntactic word-building is in making a new word from two or more stems. The number of compound words in Old English is significant, some of them were periphrastic nominations for some common notions and form special stylistic devices in epic poems (kennings).
The most common patterns are: N +N äc-treö (oak tree), sten-brycj (stone-bridge), böc-crabfl (literature), xlmesjifu (alms, charity), aslmesriht (right of receiving alms), folclaju (public law), hwselhunta (whalehunter), cradocild (a child in cradle, infant), see man (seaman), wiMertM (winter time), horshweel (walrus); Adj+N cwicseolfor (quicksilver), Jöd-daed (good deed), Westsse (Western sea), wid- wej (wide road), ealdorbisceop (high priest), ealdorman (noble man), eald-jesJd (old companion), hraed-wyrde (hasty of speech), swyd-ferhd (bold, rash); N + V lustfuUian (rejoice); V+N bsec-hüs (bakery); N+Adj/PII win-sled (drunk, satiated with wine), bealo-hydij (ev]]-m\nded), feorh- seoc (mortally wounded), jilp-hlaeden (full of praise), hrim-ceald (frost-cold), ealdor-lanj (age-long), sumor-lanj (summer-long); Adj + Adj heard-saslij (unfortunate); I'll + N boljen-möd (having an angry mind); Adv + V asfterfidjan (follow, come after), underbade (behind).
There are compounds made from three and ever more stems; they may have derivative morphemes too:ryhtfaederencyn (lyht+faederen-cyn) direct paternal ancestry, ryhtnordamvind (ryht+nordan+wind) good wind from the north.
Among the compound words there are a lot of poetic metaphoric circumlocutions called kennings. Some notions, such as battle, warrior, had a great number of such periphrastic nomination (synonymic group of warrior, for instance had 37 such nominations only in "Beowulf')- Some examples of such words are: jdr-berend (spear-carrier), jär-wija (spear warrior), sweord-freca (sword-hero), jud-beorn (battle warrior), jud-freca (battle hero), jud-rinc (man of war, warroir), inajo-rinc (relative warrior), jud-wine (war friend), lind-hsebbend (shield owner), hilde-deor (battle beast), nmdhaebbend (shield-owner), jud-hafoc (battle hawk), liildemecj (battle man), here-rinc (army hero), dom-jeorn (eager for fame), byrn-wija (armour-clad warrior) and many others.
Other notions that had synonymous kennings are: human body: bän-eofa (bone chamber), bän-hüs (house of bones) bdn-loca (bone-enclosure), lic-hdina (body-home), fläesc-liäm (home for flesh), ferhd-loca (spirit-enclosure); battle: waspen-jewrixl (weapon-exchange), jdr-niittiinj (encounter of spears), citmbol-jeluuist (collision of banners); sea: sejl-rdd (sail road), laju-flöd (water flood), laju-ldd (water way).
Semantic word-building is actually a metaphoric extension of meaning of a word to name something other, similar to original word in some respects. Here belong: mud (mouth, part of human face) —> (Humbra) mud (mouth, part of the river, here Humber), wendan (to turn) —> wendan (to translate), weorc (work ) —> weorc (fortress) etc.
14. Principal features of Old English Syntax
Old English was largely a synthetic language. It possessed a system of grammatical forms which could indicate the connection between words. It was primarily a spoken language. Herefore the written forms of the language resembled oral speech. The syntax of Old English sentence was relatively simple. Coordination of clauses prevailed over subordination. Complictaed syntactical constructions were rare. The syntactic structure of Old English can be described at the level of phrases and at the level of sentences.
There were great varieties of word phrases in Old English: noun, adjective, verb patterns. They have their specific features. Noun pattern consisted of a noun as the head word and pronoun, adjective (verbal adjectives or particles), numerals and other nouns as determiners and attributes. Most noun modifiers agreed with the noun in gender, number, case. Nouns which served as attributes to other nouns usually had the form of Genitive case. Adjective patterns included vebs, nouns, pronouns with or without prepostions in the non-direct cases and infinitives. Verb patterns included a lot of dependent components: nouns, pronouns, infinitives, particles. Infinitives and particles were often used in verb phrases with verbs of incomplete predication (some of phrases were later transformed into analytical forms).
The main types of syntactic relations existed in Old English were agreement, government, joining. Agreement is one of the way of expressing syntactic relations when different words, especially adjectives and nouns were agreed in case (genitive in particular), in tantum, in gender. In government one word stands in this or that form (case) due to the other word which governs it. Joining deals with the parts of speech which have uncheangabke forms (adverbs in particular). In Old English phrases attribute could precede or follow the head noun. Negations were not limited in number. The most common negative particle ne was placed before verbs. Verbs were often accompanied by negative words nãht, nõht, that had developed from particle ne. Nõht was latelyshortened to not — a new negative particle. Particle ne attached to someverbs, pronouns, adverbs to form single words: nãn — ne an — not one.
Parts of the sentence were represented in Old English by the Subject, the Predicate, the Object, the Attribute, the Adverbial Modifier, the Apposition. Predicates could be simple and compound (modal, verbal and nominal). Attributive groups were short. There were very few predicate constructions. For example absolute constructions with the noun in Dative case were sometimes used in translation from Latin to imitate the Latin Dativus Absolutus. The objective predicative constructions (accusative with infinitive) ocurred in original Old English. Predicative constructions after habban (had) contained Past Participle.
The word order in the sentence was relatively free. The presence of formal markers made it possible to miss out some parts of the sentence, which would be obligatory in an English sentence now. The Subject was not repeated but the form of the predicate showed that the action was preformed by the same person as the preceding action. The formal subject was lacking in many impersonal sentences (though it was present in others). The position of the words in the sentence was often determined by logical and stylistic factors. But the word order depended on the communicative type of the sentence – a question or a statement, on the type of clause, on the presence and place of some secondary parts of the sentence. Inversion was used in questions. Full inversion was used with simple predicates and partial – with compound predicates, containing link verbs and modal verbs. If a sentence began with an adverbial modifier, the word order was inverted.
A peculiar type of word order is found in many subordinate and some coordinate clauses. The clause began with the subject followed the connective and ended with the predicate or its finite part, all the secondary parts being enclised between them. This is the type of synthetic word order, i.e. secondary parts were inserted between the subject and the predicate or its parts. Compound and complex sentences existed in the English language since the earliest times. Coordinate clauses were mostly joined by and. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles have a lot of sentences which begin with and. Repetition of connectives at the head of each clause was common in complex sentences. Attributive clauses were joined to the principal clauses by means of various connectives, as there was no special class of relative pronouns in Old English. The main connective was the indeclinable particle ƥe, employed either alone or together with demonstrative and personal pronouns. The pronoun and conjunction ƥæt was used to introduce object and adverbial clauses, alone or with other form-words. Some clauses were intermediate between coordinate and subordinate. The joined asyndetically and their status was not clear. The structure of the complex sentences was greatly improved due to King Alfred, the greatest writer of the late 10-th – early 11-th centuries, who employed a variety of connectives that indicated the relations between the clauses with greater clarity and precision.
ЛІТЕРАТУРА
1. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка: Учебник для студентов факультетов иностранных языков / В.Д. Аракин. – М.: Наука, 1985. – 254 с.
2. Верба Л.Г. Історія англійської мови. Посібник для студентів та викладачів вищих навчальних закладів / Л.Г. Верба. – Вінниця: НОВА КНИГА, 2006. – 296 с.
3. Гаваева Н.Н., Чубарова Ю.Е. Тезисы лекций и материалы по истории английского языка : учебно-методическое пособие / Н. Н. Гаваева, Ю. Е. Чубарова. – Саранск : Изд-во Мордов. ун-та, 2010. – 52 с.
4. Иванова И., Беляева Т., Чахоян Л.П. Практикум по истории английского языка/ И. Иванова, Т. Беляева, Л.П. Чахоян. – Спб: Лань, 2000. – 159 с.
5. Ильиш Б.А. История английского языка: Учебник для студентов факультетов иностранных языков / Б.А. Ильиш. – Л.: “Просвещение”, 1972. – 351 с.
6. Расторгуева Т.А. История английского языка: Учебник / Т.А. Расторгуева. – 2-е изд., стер. – М.: ООО «Издательство Астрель», 1996. – 348 с.
7. Blaugh A.A. A History of the English Language/ A.A. Baugh. – London: Roulteldge, 1988. – 284 p.
8. Ivanova I.P., Belyeva T.M. Reading in the History of the English Language/ I.P. Ivanova, T.M. Belyeva. – M, 2000. – 151 p.