SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF THE NOUN
The noun can be used in the sentence in all syntactic functions but predicate. The primary substantive functions of the noun are those of the subject and the object. Its other functions are predicative, attributive and adverbial (Fig. 43).
Fig. 43
Speaking about noun combinability, we can say that it can go into right-hand and left-hand connections with practically all parts of speech (Fig. 44).
Practically all parts of speech but the verb can act as noun determiners. The most common noun determiners are considered to be articles, pronouns, numerals, adjectives and nouns themselves in the common and genitive case (Fig. 45).
Fig. 44
Fig. 45
VERB AND ITS CATEGORIES
CLASSIFICATIONS OF VERBS
The verb is the most complex part of speech. The categorial semantics of the verb is process presented dynamically. This general processual meaning is proved by the verb valency and the syntactic function of the predicate.
The processual categorial meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (its subject) and, in cases of the objective verb, the recipient of the action (its object). It also determines its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action.
In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the functions of the verb-predicate, expressing the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice, and mood.
From the point of view of their outward structure, verbs are characterized by specific forms of word-building, as well as by the formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories.
The grammatical categories which find formal expression in the outward structure of the verb are, first, the category of finitude dividing the verb into finite and non-finite forms (Fig. 46). The non-finite forms (or verbals) are four in number, they are: the infinitive, the gerund, participle I and participle II.
Category of Finitude
Fig. 46
Second, the categories of person, number, tense, aspect, retrospect, voice, and mood. Thus, the verb in English has eight categories (Fig. 47). The common categories for finite and non-finite forms are voice, aspect, phase and finitude. The grammatical categories of the English verb find their expression in synthetical and analytical forms. The formative elements expressing these categories are grammatical affixes, inner inflexion and function words. Some categories have only synthetical forms (person, number), others – only analytical (voice).
Fig. 47
Fig. 48
Within the class of verb various subclass divisions based on different principles of classification can be found.
1. Morphological classification includes classifications on the basis of two criteria:
a) According to their stem-types all verbs fall into: simple, sound-replacive, stress-replacive, expanded, composite, phrasal (Fig. 48). Simple verbs consist of only one root morpheme. Derivative verbs are composed of one root morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes. Compound verbs consist of at least two stems. Phrasal verbs consist of a verbal stem and an adverbial particle, which is sometimes referred to as postposition.
b) According to the way of forming past tenses and Participle II verbs can be regular and irregular.
2.Lexical-morphological classification is based on the implicit grammatical meanings of the verb. This classification of the verb may be undertaken from different standpoints. Grammatically important is the devision of verbs into the following classes:
a) On the basis of the subject-process relation all notional verbs are divided into the following sets: actional and statal, relational and processual (Fig. 49). Actional verbs express the action performed by the subject, i.e. they present the subject as an active doer. Statal and relational verbs denote the state or relations of their subject, i.e. they either give the subject the characteristic of the inactive recipient of some outward activity, or else express the mode of its existence. The difference in their categorical meaning affects their morphological paradigm: statal and relational verbs have no passive voice. Also they are not generally used in the continuous and perfect continuous tenses. Their occasional use in these tenses is always exceptional and results in the change of meaning. Alongside of these verbal sets, another one could be distinguished which is made up of verbs expressing neither actions, nor states, but “processes”.
Fig. 49
b) According to the implicit grammatical meaning of aspective verbal semantics the following subclasses of notional verbs are singled out: limitive and unlimitive (Fig. 50).
Fig. 50
This division of verbs depends on the aspectual characteristic in the lexical meaning of the verb which influences the use of aspect forms.
Limitive verbs besides their specific meaning contain the idea that the action must be fulfilled and come to an end, reaching some point where it has logically to stop.
Unlimitive verbs imply that actions or states expressed by these verbs may go on indefinitely without reaching any logically necessary final point.
The end, which is simply an interruption of these actions, may be shown only by means of some adverbial modifier. The last subclass comprises verbs that can function as both limitive and unlimitive. These verbs are called verbs of double aspectual meaning.
Ther exist numerous minor aspective groups of the types shown above as their microcomponent sets (Fig. 51). The basis of this division is constituted by the relation of the verbal semantics to the idea of a processual limit, i. e. some border point beyond which the process expressed by the verb or implied in its semantics is discontinued or simply does not exist.
c) On the basis of implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity verbs may be subdivided into transivite and intransitive (Fig. 52).
Without the object the meaning of the transitive verb is incomplete or entirely different. Transitive verbs may be followed: by one direct object (monotransitive verbs); by a direct and an indirect objects (ditransitive verbs); by a prepositional object (prepositional transitive verbs). Intransitive verbs do not require any object for the completion of their meaning. There are many verbs in English that can function as both transitive and intransitive. They are called ambitransitive.
3. From the syntactic standpoint verbs fall into a number of subclasses:
a) According to the nature of predication (primary and secondary) all verbs fall into finite and non-finite (Fig. 53).
b) According to syntagmatic properties (valency) verbs are classified into two sets: complementive (taking obligatory adjuncts) and supplementive (taking optional adjuncts) (Fig. 54). The syntactic valency of the verb falls into two cardinal types: obligatory and optional. The subjective and the direct objective valencies of the verb are obligatory. The adverbial valency of the verb is mostly optional.
Fig. 51
Complementive and supplementive verbs fall into minor groups: complementive verbs are subdivided into predicative, objective, and adverbial verbs; supplementive verbs are subdivided into personal and impersonal verbs.
The objective complementive verbs are divided into several important subclasses, depending on the kinds of complements they combine with (Fig. 55). On the upper level of division they fall into monocomplementive verbs (taking one object-complement) and bicomplementive verbs (taking two complements). The monocomplementive objective verbs fall into five main subclasses. The bicomplementive objective verbs also fall into five main subclasses.
Fig. 52
Fig. 53
Fig. 54
Fig. 55
4. According to their functionalsignificance verbs can be notional (with the full lexical meaning), semi-notional and functional (with the partial lexical meaning) (Fig. 56). Semi-notional and functional verbs are divided into auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, link verbs, and semi-notional verbid introducer verbs (seem, happen, begin).
Fig. 56
CATEGORIES OF THE VERB