POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF KAZAKHSTAN
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a contiguous transcontinental country in Central Asia, with its smaller part west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan is the world's largestlandlocked country by land area and the ninth largest country in the world; its territory of 2,727,300 square kilometres (1,053,000 sq mi) is larger than Western Europe. It has borders with (clockwise from the north) Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, andTurkmenistan, and also adjoins a large part of the Caspian Sea. The terrain of Kazakhstan includes flatlands, steppe, taiga, rock canyons, hills, deltas, snow-capped mountains, and deserts. With 17 million people (2013 estimate) Kazakhstan has the62nd largest population in the world, though its population density is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.). The capital is Astana (previously Almaty).
The territory of Kazakhstan has historically been inhabited by nomadic tribes. By the 16th century, the Kazakhs emerged as a distinct group, divided into three jüz (ancestor branches occupying specific territories). The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of theRussian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganized several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, a part of the Soviet Union.
Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence following thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991; the current President, Nursultan Nazarbayev, has been leader of the country since 1990. Nazarbayev maintains strict control over the country's politics. Since independence, Kazakhstan has pursued a balancedforeign policy and worked to develop its economy, especially its hydrocarbon industry.
Kazakhstan is ethnically and culturally diverse, in part due to mass deportations of many ethnic groups to the country during Joseph Stalin's rule. Kazakhstan has a population of 16.6 million, with 131 ethnicities, including Kazakh,Russian, Ukrainian, German, Uzbek, Tatar, and Uyghur. Around 63% of the population are Kazakhs.[1] Kazakhstan allows freedom of religion. It is a very tolerant country to religions like Islam, Christianity, Judaism and Buddhism. Islam is the religion of about 70% and Christianity is practiced by 26% of the population. The Kazakh language is the state language and Russian has the official status, equal to that of the Kazakh language when used in documentation of all levels.
Officially, Kazakhstan is a unitary republic. The first and only President is Nursultan Nazarbayev. The President is also the commander in chief of the armed forces and mayveto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. The prime minister chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. Serik Akhmetov has served as the Prime Minister since September 24, 2012.
Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament composed of the lower house (the Majilis) and upper house (the Senate). Single mandate districts popularly elect 107 seats in the Majilis; there also are 10 members elected by party-list vote rather than by single mandate districts. The Senate has 47 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (Maslikhats) of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions (14 provinces, plus the cities of Astana and Almaty). The president appoints the remaining 7 senators. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the Parliament.
Religion in Kazakhstan
The majority Kazakh citizens are Sunni of the Hanafi school, traditionally including ethnic Kazakhs, who constitute about 60% of the population, as well as by ethnic Uzbeks, Uighurs, and Tatars. Less than 1% are part of the Shafi`i (primarily Chechens) There are a total of 2,300 mosques,l of them are affiliated with the "Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan", headed by a suprememufti. The Eid al-Adha is recognized as a national holiday.
Less than 25% of the population of Kazakhstan is Russian Orthodox, traditionally including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians Other Christian groups include Roman Catholics and Protestants (Baptists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, and Pentecostals, as well as Jehovah's Witnessesand Seventh-day Adventists, Methodists, Mennonites and members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints). There are a total of 265 registered Orthodox churches, 93 Catholic churches, and 543 Protestant churches and prayer houses. The Russian Orthodox Christmas is recognized as a national holiday in Kazakhstan.
Other religious registered groups include Judaism, the Bahá'í Faith, Hare Krishnas, Buddhists, the Church of Scientology, Christian Scientists, and the Unification Church.
The country is multiethnic, with a long tradition of tolerance and secularism.Since independence, the number of mosques and churches has increased greatly. However, the population is sometimes wary of minority religious groups and groups that proselytize. There were several reports of citizens filing complaints with authorities after their family members became involved with such groups. Leaders of the four religious groups the government considers "traditional" – Islam, Russian Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Judaism – reported general acceptance and tolerance that other minority religious groups did not always enjoy.
The country has historically hosted a wide variety of ethnic groups with varying religions. Tolerance to other societies has become a part of the Kazakh culture. The foundation of an independent republic, following the disintegration of the USSR, has launched a great deal of changes in every aspect of people's lives. Religiosity of the population, as an essential part of any cultural identity, has undergone dynamic transformations as well.
After decades of suppressed culture, the people were feeling a great need for exhibiting their ethnic identity – in part through religion. Quantitative research shows that for the first years after the establishment of the new laws, waiving any restrictions on religious beliefs and proclaiming full freedom of confessions, the country experienced a huge spike in religious activity of its citizens. Hundreds of mosques, synagogues, churches, and other religious structures were built in a matter of years. All represented religions benefited from increased number of members and facilities. Many confessions that were absent before independence made their way into the country, appealing to hundreds of people. The government supported this activity, and has done its best to provide equality among all religious organizations and their followers. In late 1990s, however, a slight decline in religiosity occurred.The draft religion law being considered in June 2008 has raised international concern over whether there is an intention to meet general standards of freedom of religion and human rights.
Education in Kazakhstan
Higher education in Kazakhstan is comprised of higher secondary school, vocational training, and university education. Students enter higher education at 16 years of age. Depending on the course and the track chosen, they can remain in higher education for another 2 to 6 years.
Whether general or vocational, higher secondary education is provided free of charge, as it is included in the budget allocated to education by the government. University education is partly funded by the government, although private universities charge full tuition fees.
There are approximately 150 universities and higher education institutes spread throughout the country, although the capital, Almaty, has the highest concentration of facilities and also the most varied choice of subjects. Some of the most renowned universities include:
- Kazakhstan's National University, the oldest public university in Kazakhstan
- The Kazakh-American University, based in Almaty. This university was the first in the country to provide higher education based in the American educational model. All courses are taught in English and there are degrees available in technical subjects, the humanities, and economics. The university also offers an MBA programme and year abroad options
- The Eurasian National University in Astana, which offers Bacherlors, Masters, and PhD degrees and that is known for being a pioneer of academic mobility in Kazakhstan
- The University of Central Asia, an educational joint venture between Kazakhstan,Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan.
For many years, higher education in Kazakhstan mirrored the educational model of the former Soviet Union, to which it belonged for more than seventy years. This model was characterised by a high degree of specialisation and the rigidity of the curriculum.
Once Kazakhstan became an independent nation, some of the country's educational facilities began to look towards the West and tried to import some aspects of their educational model. These include the use of new technologies like the Internet, which are slowly being introduced in higher education institutions. As of 2008, 97 per cent of university students had to pay in order to access the Internet in-campus, so 1 in 2 students interviewed claimed to use the Internet only very rarely. Basic equipment like computers and printers is generally outdated, especially at public universities.
A 2007 report by the World Bank pointed out at Kazakhstan's high degree of specialisation as one of the country's main strengths. However, research facilities have suffered from a lack of funding for several years, so further investment in research and development is essential to improve the quality of education within the country.
Currently, the majority of university courses on offer are five-year degrees. These could be shortened and the number of contact hours be reduced in order to be more in line with international educational models. The implementation of a credit-based system similar to that used in Western countries is another area of opportunity. Similarly, part-time degrees are still a rarity in Kazakhstan. Adopting this mode of study could facilitate the inclusion of a wider student base into the higher education system.
Plans for future development of the higher education system in Kazakhstan also require the widespread adoption of the English language as a vehicle for instruction. The attraction and retention of a higher number of highly qualified lecturers and researchers from other countries could also help bring the educational standards closer to international requirements.
The last area of opportunity concerns the higher education curriculum, which could be fine-tuned in order to reflect more accurately the needs of the labour market.
Culture of Kazakhstan
The Kazakh people are rich in traditions. From birth through old age and death, every step of their lives has historically been marked with celebration. Even their funeral ceremonies have their own special symbolism.
Unfortunately, many rich and interesting traditions and customs of the Kazakh people have been forgotten throughout the past century. Real sovereignty is just now being reestablished in Kazakhstan due to the process of democratization. These abandoned traditions are just now being rediscovered by the Kazakh people. These traditions include being respectful to old people; being patriotic to the motherland; being honest; and learning to love mankind.
Traditionally every guest is offered Kazakh cuisine at the dastarkhan (the low table) in a yurt.
The yurt is one of the most sensible types of movable house. It is a comfortable and practical home, ideally suited to local conditions and ways of life - one of the greatest inventions of theEurasian nomads.
It is easily taken apart (it is said that a Kazakh woman can do it in half an hour) and carried by horses and camels. The yurt consists of three main elements: an extensible trellis base (the kerege), a dome made of poles(the uyk) and a round top (the shanyrak).
In ancient times Turks were reputed as the most skillful felt-makers. These days the Kazakhs use felt to cover the yurt and for its internal decoration, as well as to make carpets, dresses and shoes. The Kazakhs live surrounded by ornaments. They richly decorate their yurts with wall carpets and multi-colored embroideries.
Handicrafts - harnesses, felt mats (tekemets), and articles made of wood, bone and metal - are lavishly decorated. Headdresses, dresses, bags and saddle-cloths are beautifully embroidered. They use traditional designs and carvings to make and decorate the wooden cups, large bowls and ladles used to serve kumis (fermented mare's milk).
The horns of mountain rams and goats are used to decorate beds and caskets. Leather is used to make quivers, belts, harnesses and flasks (torsyks) for water and kumis. Kazakh artisans are also very skillful jewelers.
Steppe zergers (jewelers) favor white silver. Traditional Kazakh bell-shaped earrings, original bracelets (blezics), or the traditional bracelet linked to three rings with fine chains will certainly impress you.
Kazakh national dress varies by regions. Men wear chapans, a kind of dressing gown with a belt, made of velvet and richly embroidered. They cover their heads with a soft skullcap (tobetai), a tall felt cap (kalpak) or a fox-fur hat with earflaps (malakai).
The women's national costume consists of a white cotton or colored silk dress, a velvet waistcoat with embroidery and a cap or a silk scarf. Elderly women wear a hood made of white cloth with a hole for the face (the kimeshek). Brides wear a tall pointed, richly decorated hat, topped with feathers (saukele).
Kazakh music and musical instruments: The Kazakhs love the art of wordplay and their akyns (poets), who improvise at public competitions (aitys) accompanied by Kazakh stringed musical instruments: the dombra or the kobyz.
Nauryz (Islamic New Year) is one of the biggest holidays in Central Asia. In Kazakhstan it is celebrated on the day of the spring equinox, March 22. On that day, the streets of villages and towns are transformed. Guests are hosted in beautiful yurts with the traditional Nauryz kozhe dish made of seven traditional ingredients. People respecting this nearly month-long holiday forgive each others' debts and offences.
National games: these are usually performed on horseback and are an opportunity to witness the Kazakhs' outstanding riding skills. Kazaksha kures (Kazakh wrestling), baiga (horse racing over 25, 50 or 100 km), kokpar (a sort of polo game played with a dead goat), kyz-kuu (catch the girl) and alty bakan (six-pole swing).
POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF KAZAKHSTAN
Republic of Kazakhstan – as per its 1995 Constitution (amended in 1998) is a democratic, secular, law-abiding and social state the supreme values of which are an individual, his life, rights and freedoms. Kazakhstan is the unitary state with the presidential form of power. The State power is uniform, and carried out on the basis of the Constitution and laws according to a principle of its division into legislative, executive and judicial branches and interaction between them with the use of the system of compromises and counter-balances.
Basic principles of the activity of Kazakhstan as a state are public consent and political stability, economic development for the sake of all people, Kazakhstani patriotism, resolution of the most important issues of the state and public life by democratic methods, including voting on a republican referendum or in Parliament.
Kazakhstan admits the ideological and political pluralism. The merger of public and state institutions, creation of the units of political parties in state structures is illegal, intervention of the state into the affairs of public associations, putting of functions of the state onto public associations, state financing of public associations is also not allowed.
President of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the head of the state, its supreme official, who determines the basic guidelines of the internal and foreign policy of the state and represents Kazakhstan inside the country and in the international relations.
On January 10, 1999 on an alternative basis Noursultan Nazarbayev was elected the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan on a seven-year term, having received 79,78% of voices of voters (4 candidates for the Presidency).
The Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the supreme representative body of the Republic which carries out supreme legislative functions. It consists of two Chambers - the Senate (47 places) and Majilis (77 places from which 67 are filled on majority system and 10 - under party lists). The elections to the lower chamber (Majilis) are carried out by direct, secret and universal suffrage and in upper chamber (Senate) - indirect ballot. A legal term of the Senate is 6 years, Majilis - 5 years. Last parliamentary elections of October, 1999 for the first time were held on alternative party basis.
On September 19, 2004 the elections to the Majilis of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan were carried out.
For the first time in the history of Kazakhstan in order to ensure the favorable conditions for the unbiased, public and just upcoming elections in compliance with the standard of the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe electronic voting system was applied.
More than 800 representatives from numerous international organizations, foreign states and nongovernmental organizations took part to observe the entire process, from the beginning of campaign to the end of vote count. Invitations were sent to the international, regional and local mass media all over the world in order to highlight the course of the Kazakhstan Parliamentary Elections.
Political parties were enabled to create the electoral coalitions, which had provided them with the conditions of political maneuvering during the elections for the effective use of their opportunities. 12 parties with the different political approaches had been registered. There are as follows: “Otan”, “Asar”, “Ak Zhol”, “Auyl”, “Rukhaniyat”, Kazakhstan Communist Party, Patriots of Kazakhstan Party, Democratic Choice Party, Civic Party, Kazakhstan Agrarian Party, Kazakhstan Democratic Party and Communist Peoples Party.
The Government carries out executive authority of the Republic of Kazakhstan, heads the system of executive structures. The Chief executive of the Republic is the Prime-Minister who heads the Government of the Republic which is responsible before the President and is accountable to the Parliament.
With a view of maintenance of the strict observance of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan the Constitutional Council is created. The supreme independent juridical body of the Republic on civil, criminal and economical cases is the Supreme Court.
TYPES OF TOURISM
Tourism is travelling for pleasure or to enjoy yourself away from the place you live. People do this for many different reasons – to have fun, visit other countries and learn about other cultures or just relax from stressfulworking life. Tourists go to various destinations - countries with great landmarks, places with lovely beaches or simply areas of wilderness and untouchednature.
In the last few decades tourism has grown very much, mostly because people’s lifestyles have changed. They don’t want to stay at home any more. They spend more money on travelling than previous generations did. Travelling has also become cheaper and more affordable. The rise of budget airlines has made it possible toafford trips to faraway countries.
Types of Tourism
· Beach tourism
Many tourists spend their holidays on beaches. They relax, go bathing or just enjoy the salty sea breezeand the ocean. Spending holidays on beaches has had a long tradition for over one and a half centuries.
· Winter tourism
Winter tourism started out in the middle of the 19th century when wealthy Europeans went to St. Moritz and other alpine resorts. In Europe and in the American Rockies skiing resorts attract millions of people every year. Various lifts bring skiers to altitudes of over 3,000 meters.
· Medical tourism
People go to other countries for medical treatment and operations. Irish women, for example, go to the UK because abortions are forbidden in their country. West Europeans go to Eastern Europe for dentaltreatment. Americans go to Mexico for plastic surgery and other operations.
· Educational tourism
Young people live as exchange students in other countries, where they go to school and study the language and culture of the host country.
· Sports tourism
An increasing number of sports fans travel to places where special events are being held. The Olympic Games and world championships attract visitors from around the world.
· Package Holidays
Organized tours were started in the middle of the 19th century by a British businessman, Thomas Cook.Package tours are made up of travel to and accommodation at the destination. A tourist agency often provides everything from a plane flight to a rental car. Sometimes such package tours offer a combination of beach holidays and sightseeing trip.
Spa Tourism
Spas have been popular since Roman times. In 16th century Britain Bath became the center of spa tourism for the rich population. During the 19th century spas emerged all over Europe. Today people go to spas for the healing effect of mineral waters as well as for offer wellness treatment, massages, steam baths and other services.
Adventure tourism
In the past few decades trips to faraway exotic places have become popular. Tourists looking forthrilling activities go mountaineering, rafting,trekking , or even to remote places in therainforest.
Religious tourism
Religious tourists go on pilgrimages to holy sites. Roman Catholics, for example, travel to Lourdes, Fatima or the Vatican in Europe. Muslims are required to go to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Varanasi , on the banks of the Ganges River, is the spiritual capital of the Hindus.
Ecotourism
Recently many people have chosen a type of tourism that does not damage the environment. Theyavoid travelling by plane or do not buy souvenirs that are made out of endangered plants and animals. Some holiday offers give tourists the chance to take part in environmental projects.