The transference of denomination
The development of a polysemantic word's meaning takes place as a result of transferring one real object’s denomination onto another, based on the community of the respective objects’ features. Depending on the nature of common features, transference of denomination is subdivided into three types: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.
Metaphor is transference of denomination from one real object onto another due to the similarity of their particular features. Similarity may be found in diverse types of features of both primary and secondary denotations. We shall cite the examples of most widespread types of features that provide basis for the formation of metaphor.
Transference by similarity of color: Eng. iron wire – iron-gray hair, Ukr. золоті вироби (gold-ware) – золоте волосся (golden locks), воскова фігура (wax figure) – воскове обличчя (waxen complexion); Rus. шоколадный крем (chocolate cream) – шоколадный загар (chocolate tan), оловянный припой (tin solder) – оловянный взгляд (tinny stare). This type of transference is common for all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of shape: Eng. your arm – arm of river, Ukr. крилo птаха (wings of a bird) – крилo літака (wings of an airplane), арка (bow-shaped overhead cover of a passage through the wall) – арка (a decorative construction); Rus. головка ребёнка (diminutive of “голова” – head) (head of a child) – головка капусты (head of cabbage), золотое кольцо (gold ring) – трамвайное кольцо (tram-line circle). The analyzed type of transference is also widespread in all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of location in space: Eng. one’s nose – nose of a car, Ukr. ніс людини (nose of a person) – ніс корабля (rostrum of a ship); Rus. хвост животного (tail of an animal) – хвост поезда (rear coaches of a train), ножка ребёнка (leg of a child) – ножка стола (leg of a table). This type of transference is widespread in all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of age and gender: Ukr. бабуся (mother of one’s father or mother – grandmother, Rus. бабушка) – бабуся (a woman of elderly age – Rus. бабушка), тітка (aunt, Rus. тётя), дядько (uncle, Rus. дядя). The above-described type of transference is typical of Ukrainian and Russian. Apparently, this can be explained by the fact that in these languages units of age and gender denomination are employed for attracting a person’s attention, i.e. as forms of address. In English, the said function is performed by special units.
Transference by similarity of ideas as to mode of action: Eng. to lean (on a walking-stick), Ukr. спиратися (на ціпок), Rus. опираться – Eng. to lean (on a weighty opinion, smb.’s support), Ukr. спиратися (на авторитетну думку, чиюсь підтримку), Rus. опираться. A type of transference well-known to all languages.
Transference by similarity of functions: Ukr. ртутний барометр (mercury barometer) – барометр суспільної думки (barometer of public opinion), захист (у футболі) (defence in soccer) – захист (на суді) (defence in the court). This type of transference is widespread in all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of result: Eng. to break (a toy), Ukr. ламати (іграшку), Rus. ломать – Eng. to break (old rules), Ukr. ламати (старі порядки), Rus. ломать; Eng. to open (a door), Ukr. відкривати (двері), Rus. открывать – Eng. to open (a concert), Ukr. відкривати (концерт), Rus. открывать. A type of transference well-known to all the three languages.
Transference by similarity of evaluation: Eng. a heart of gold, as good as gold, Rus. благородный человек (noble person) – благородный металл (noble metal). A widespread type of transference.
Transference by similarity of associations: Eng. sweet chocolate – sweet love, sweet sound, Ukr. гіркий смак (bitter taste) – гірке почуття (bitter feeling), солодке печиво (sweet pastry) – солодке життя (sweet life); Rus. яркие краски (bright colours) – яркий человек (bright person), глубокий яр (deep ravine) – глубокий ответ (deep/profound answer), ленивец (lazy person) – ленивец (sloth, South African animal poorly adapted to walking on earth). The most widely used type of transference in all the languages.
Metaphor based on the similarity of associations is one of the events displaying the peculiarities of world perception, national culture, beliefs and ideas of native speakers. Nothing is more difficult to translate from one language into another than the associative metaphor. Metaphoric meanings function in every language, which means that likeness of various outward things in the surrounding world is realized by all the people. However, signs underlying the formation of brand-new meanings appear diversified in various languages, with discrepancies being observed even in closely cognate languages. For instance, the Russian term for one of the types of garment fasteners is молния (lightning). The word’s metaphoric meaning was formed on the basis of its primary meaning “electric discharge in the air”. The common features of its primary and secondary denotations are “rapidity” and “shape of line”. In the closely-related Ukrainian language, the same type of fastener is termed not молния, but змійка (derived from змія – snake, long-bodied reptile). English denominates the corresponding real object using the non-derivative word zip. In this case, transference of name has been effected due to the similarity of shape. Are there any universal metaphoric meanings, inherent to all languages? Solution of this issue has been the target of search for many scientists. An especially valuable contribution to the settlement of this problem was made by the English scientist Ullman. His studies reveal some universal types of metaphoric transferences, although he remarks that concurrence on the level of words is accidental. Universal types of metaphor include, for example, a synesthetic metaphor, which is formed when transferring features perceived by the sense organs into the realm of psychology: Ukr. гіркота (bitterness of taste) – гіркота (bitter sensation causing the person’s emotional suffering), кислий (tasting sour) – кислий (sour expression of face), золотий (golden, made of gold) – золотий характер (golden, i.e. very good temper), м’який диван (soft couch) – м’який характер (mild temper), залізна деталь (iron detail) – залізний характер (iron temper). Universal are also the metaphor of orientation: Ukr. лівий кут (left corner) – ліві погляди (left-wing views), права сторона (right-hand side) – права партія (right-wing party); the anthropomorphic metaphor: Ukr. заєць (hare) – заєць (timorous person), півень (rooster) – півень (cocky boy), гусак (goose) – гусак (unreliable, roguish person), and the meteorological metaphor: Ukr. буря (storm) – буря (a vivid and intense outbreak of feelings).
Metonymy is transference by contiguity of features of two real objects. Contiguity can also belong to different types: spatial, procedural, qualitative, temporal. We shall provide a few examples of metonymic transferences.
- “Premises, section of space – people abiding inside of it”: Eng. my cabinet – Cabinet of Ministers, Ukr. просторий клас (spacious class-room) – випускний клас (class of graduates), гарний двір (nice-looking yard) – зустрічали всім двором (he was met by the whole yard – i.e. people gathered in the yard); Rus. большая аудитория (large lecture-hall/auditorium) – понимающая аудитория (audience with good understanding), просторный дом (roomy house) – дружный дом (united house, i.e. family). This type of transference is less popular in English than in Ukrainian and Russian.
- “Material – article manufactured from this material (or event associated with its usage)”: Eng. Gold, Silver, Iron age, Ukr. шовк (silk) – одягтися в шовки (to dress up in silks, i.e. luxuriously), Rus. серебро (silver) – серебро (silverware – department in a shopping centre). A widespread type of transference.
- “Process, action – result of action”: Eng. work, research, Ukr. робота продовжується (the work continues) – робота представлена до захисту (the work, i.e. paper, has been submitted for defence); Rus. сочинение стихов (composition of poems) – сочинение издано (the composition is published). The most widespread type of transference in all the three languages.
- “Feature – bearer of this feature”: Ukr. висота (distance from the sea level upwards) – висота (an elevated spot); Rus. крутизна (steepness; noun derived from adjective крутой – steep) – крутизна (steep slope). This type of transference is not very common for the English language.
- “Action – place of action”: Eng. going out, leaving, Ukr. вихід – Rus. выход (going out/exit) – вихід у відкритий космос здійснювався кілька разів (flights into the outer space were conducted several times) – вихід закритий (the exit is closed).
- “Person in a certain state of mood – thing expressing this state of mood”: Eng. bitter man – bitter experience, Ukr. сумна людина – Rus. печальный человек (sad person) – сумна пісня – Rus. печальная песня (sad song). A widespread type of transference.
A variety of metonymy is called synecdoche – transference of name from a part to the whole or from the whole to a part: Ukr. вишня (cherry) – вишня (cherry-tree). This type of transference is less widespread in the English language, since it uses an additional word “tree” for denoting the species of tree bearing the respective fruit: apple-tree, cherry-tree.
Apart from the lexical-semantic variants, the semantic structure of a polysemantic word hosts many nuances of meaning. In the dictionaries, the latter are usually separated with a sign //. The term “nuance” also stands for a motivated meaning that preserves especial affinity to the motivating one, for instance, sad: 1. Full of sadness (sad person) // 2. Expressing sadness (sad glance). However, the scientists offer no precise criteria for demarcating the independent meaning from its nuances, which causes discrepancies not only among different dictionaries, but also within the bounds of one.
Polysemy is widespread in all languages. This phenomenon is believed to evidence the language’s tendency to economize on linguistic means, since the same linguistic sign is utilized for the expression of a different content. In belletristic and publicistic speech, polysemy serves as a tool for creating figurativeness, expressiveness or a comic effect.
Questions for self-examination:
1. Which types of name transference enable the development of polysemy?
2. Ground the definition of metaphor and supply examples of its various types.
3. Give a few examples of the universal types of metaphor.
4. Ground the definition of metonymy and supply examples of its various types.
5. What does the specificity of synecdoche consist in?
6. Why is the phenomenon of polysemy widespread in all languages?
7. How can you explain the differences between the types of transference in various languages?
Tasks
1. Analyse of the semantic structure English and Ukrainian words and compare.
ЧОРНИЙ, -а, -е;чорний, чорна, чорне. 1.Кольору сажі, вугілля; протил. білий. Чорна фарба. Чорне плаття. Чорні шашки. Чорний капелюх.2.Темний, у протил. чому-небудь більш світлому, названому білий. Ч. хліб. Ч. гриб. 3.Який став темного кольору, стемнів. Ч. від засмаги. Руки чорні від бруду. Йди мийся, ти весь ч. Обличчя стало чорним від горя. 4.перен. Похмурий, безвідрадний, важкий. Чорні думки. Чорні дні похмурого минулого. Бачити все в чорному світлі. Відкласти грошей на ч. день. 6.перен.Злочинний, злісний. Чорна зрада. Чорну справу зробив хтось. Чорні сили реакції. 7.Не головний, допоміжний. Ч. хід у будинку. 8. Фізично важкий і некваліфікований. Чорна робота. 9.Приналежний до непривілейованих, експлуатованих класів суспільства (застаріле). Ч. народ. Чорні люди. Чорна кіста. 10.У Стародавній Русі: державний, не приватний. Чорні землі. Чорні селяни., ◊ Чорно(розм.) - дуже чорно (див. чорний у 1знач.). У чорному тілі триматикого - погано ставитися до когось. Чорним по білому(написано, сказано і т.ін.) - ясно і недвозначно. Чорним словом(лаяти, сварити і т. ін.; застар.) - зі згадуванням чорта. Чорна біржа -неофіційна біржа. Чорний ринок -незаконні комерційні операції, торгівля. Чорний ворон(застар.) - закритий автомобіль для перевезення заарештованих.