Text 20. PRODUCTION OF SYNTHETIC FUELS

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Synthetic Fuels are liquid or gaseous fuels extracted or fabricated from solid earth materials that are rich in hydrocarbons - compounds containing hydrogen and carbon. Although similar in composition to gasoline, synthetic fuels are not refined from petroleum, but are extracted instead from coal, oil shale, tar sands, natural gas, and biomass (plants and plant-derived substances). For example, coal can be converted into liquid fuel by a process called liquefaction, and oil can be extracted from oil shale by a process called retorting. Natural gas is converted into fuel-ready liquid by using gas-to-liquids technology.

Like petroleum-based fuels, synthetic fuels can be used in a variety of applications in transportation, manufacturing, businesses, and homes. Because producing synthetic fuels is more costly than refining petroleum, however, the use of synthetic fuels is not widespread.

Production of synthetic fuels involves complex industrial processes. After hydrocarbons have been extracted from coal, oil shale, natural gas, tar sands, or biomass, the chemical structures of these hydrocarbons are rearranged, by means of chemical reactions, to form synthetic fuels.

A. Coal. Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed from ancient land plants that were slowly buried under layers of sediment. As these overlying sediment layers built up over millions of years, increasing heat and pressure transformed the submerged organic material into coal. Traditionally, coal has been burned to provide heat and power for residential and manufacturing needs. More recently, this fossil fuel has also been burned in coal-fired power plants to produce electric power.

Coal can be synthesized into both gas and liquid fuels. Coal is synthesized into vapor fuel by a process known as gasification. This process is carried out by heating coal in the presence of steam and oxygen to produce synthesis gas, which is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane. Synthesis gas can be burned as fuel or treated further to produce cleaner-burning gas.

Coal can also be converted to gas without being removed from the ground. Underground gasification is accomplished by drilling shafts down into a coal seam, igniting the coal deposit, and then pumping steam and oxygen down into the burning coal bed. This process produces synthesis gas, which is removed from the coal deposit through separate vents.

Coal liquefaction converts coal into a liquid fuel that is similar in composition to crude petroleum. Several techniques are used in coal liquefaction. In the first method, called indirect liquefaction, coal is gasified, forming carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane. The carbon monoxide and hydrogen are extracted and combined in the presence of a catalyst - asubstance that triggers a reaction without being chemically altered. This reaction produces liquid fuel. A second technique for coal liquefaction, called catalytic liquefaction, adds hydrogen gas to solid coal in a high-pressure chamber, and this combination is then heated in the presence of a catalyst. When cooled, this mixture forms a liquid fuel. A third process, called solvent extraction, adds a liquid solvent to solid coal. The solvent dissolves certain hydrocarbons in the coal, forming a solution that is mixed with hydrogen to produce a liquid fuel. A fourth method, known as pyrolysis, heats solid coal to high temperatures in the presence of hydrogen gas. This heating process cleaves (breaks apart) the coal molecules at their weakest points, allowing hydrogen to attach to the new molecules, which form liquid coal fuel. These coal liquefaction processes have been thoroughly tested, and some of these methods are used extensively in certain parts of the world.

B. Oil Shale. Oil shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that is similar in composition to limestone or shale, except that oil shale contains up to 25 percent solid organic material. The hydrocarbons in oil shale can be synthetically converted to petroleum by a heating process known as retorting. First, oil shale is mined as a rock, and then it is pulverized into fine particles. The resulting powder is heated to about 500° C (about 932° F) in a retorting furnace. As the powder is heated, oily hydrocarbons are driven from the pulverized rock, and these hydrocarbons are collected.

Similar to the gasification of underground coal deposits, oil shale retorting can be carried out in underground oil shale beds. Underground retorting is carried out by boring down into oil shale deposits and igniting the hydrocarbon-rich rock in order to drive off the oily hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons are then drained, collected, and pumped to the surface. Depending on the quality of the oil shale and the efficiency of the retorting process, up to 379 liters (100 gallons) of crude petroleum can be extracted per ton of rock.

C. Tar Sands. Tar sands are a sedimentary sandstone that is impregnated with an organic material called bitumen - a solid or highly viscous oil that can compose up to 20 percent of the sandstone by weight. Bitumen cannot be pumped directly from tar sands because of the oil’s asphalt-like consistency. It must be recovered from excavated tar sands either by heating the rock in retort furnaces or by treating the rock with solvents. The hydrocarbons that are extracted can then be processed in special refineries built to handle the tarlike bitumen and remove the high quantities of sulfur generally found in this organic material.

In a process similar to underground coal gasification and underground oil shale retorting, bitumen can be extracted from underground tar sands deposits by injecting steam down a shaft into the source rock. The softened hydrocarbons can then be pumped up to the surface.

D. Natural Gas. Natural gas, although historically considered a waste byproduct of petroleum and coal deposits, is now used in innumerable residential, industrial, and commercial applications. Natural gas is composed primarily of methane, the lightest of the hydrocarbon gases.

Natural gas can be converted into liquid fuels, including gasoline, by using gas-to-liquids technology, which links methane into larger hydrocarbon molecules. Methane that is joined to form carbon chains or rings can be processed into gasoline, diesel fuel, and jet fuel. Adding steam and oxygen to methane links methane carbon atoms and produces synthesis gas. This synthesis gas is then brought together with hydrogen at high temperatures in the presence of a catalyst. The resulting liquid synthetic fuels are typically clean-burning, high-quality fuels.

E. Biomass. Liquid fuels such as alcohol, ether, and oil can be produced from plants and plant-derived substances, known collectively as biomass. These liquid fuels, sometimes referred to as biofuels, are derived from the chemical energy released by plants in photosynthesis.

Biofuels can be synthesized from a variety of plants and grains. For example, soybeans and rapeseed can be processed into a diesel-like fuel. Corn and sugarcane can be fermented into alcohol. Other organic matter, such as wood, paper, and grass, can also be synthesized into alcohol when certain fermentation-triggering fungi (organisms that decompose organic matter) are added. Biomass alcohol is mixed with gasoline (in a 1:10 alcohol to gas ratio) in certain urban regions to reduce automobile emissions.

Although cost factors have discouraged development of many types of synthetic fuels, research efforts continue to focus on developing certain types of these fuels. Gas-to-liquids technology shows great promise as a means for converting natural gas into liquid fuels that can be burned by automobiles. Should gas-to-liquids technology become price-competitive with petroleum-based fuels, the world’s enormous natural gas deposits could be used to supplement petroleum and other liquid fuels.

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NOTES:

· liquefaction – сжижение, разжижение;

· furnance – печь, топка.

Text 21. MINE SAFETY

Mining is a hazardous occupation, and the safety of mine workers is an important aspect of the industry. Statistics indicate that surface mining is less hazardous than underground mining and that metal mining is less hazardous than coal mining. A study of the frequency and severity of accidents shows that the hazards stem from the nature of the operation. In all underground mines, rock and roof falls, flooding, and inadequate ventilation are the greatest hazards. Large explosions are characteristic in coal mines, but more miners suffer accidents from the use of explosives in metal mines. Accidents related to the haulage system constitute the second greatest hazard common to all types of mines.

A number of debilitating hazards exist that affect miners with the passage of time and that are related to the quality and nature of the environment in the mines. Dust produced during mining operations is generally injurious to health and causes the lung disease known as black lung, or pneumoconiosis. Some fumes generated by incomplete dynamite explosions are extremely poisonous. Methane gas, emanating from coal strata, is always hazardous although not poisonous in the concentrations usually encountered in mine air, and radiation may be a hazard in uranium mines. A tight and active safety program is usually in operation in every mine; where special care is taken to educate the miners in safety precautions and practices, accident rates are lower.

Federal legislation has set numerous operating standards regarding dust and gas concentrations in the mines, as well as general rules regarding roof support. Despite this, local conditions can suddenly change the atmosphere in the mines and render it hazardous.

Some hazards are related to the local geology and the state of stress in the rocks in the mine. The mining operation results in the shifting of loads on the strata, and in extreme cases such shifts may apply pressures on a critical section of rock that exceed the strength of the rock and result in its sudden collapse. This phenomenon, which is known as a rockburst, occurs particularly in deep mines, and research is under way to eliminate the danger.

Education, experience, research, social consciousness, and government regulation have contributed to lowering the accident rates in the mining industry. In coal mining in the U.S., for example, 346 miners lost their lives in 1930 for every 100 million tons of bituminous coal produced. The estimate has been made that 60 to 75 percent of all mining accidents are avoidable and are the result of human error.

Mining operations are considered one of the main sources of environmental degradation. Social awareness of this problem is of a global nature and government actions to stem the damage to the natural environment have led to numerous international agreements and laws directed toward the prevention of activities and events that may adversely affect the environment.

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ПРИНЯТЫЕ СОКРАЩЕНИЯ

cfm, c. f. m. - cubic feet per minute - кубических футов в минуту

cfs, c. f. s. - cubic feet per second - кубических футов в секунду

c. i. - cubic inch - кубический дюйм

cu. ft. - cubic foot - кубический фут

cu. ft. per lb. - кубический фут на фунт

cwt - hundredweight - центнер (50,8 кг в Англии, 45,36 кг в США)

e. g. - лат. exempli gratia = for example - например

etc. - лат. et cetera = and so on - и так далее

f. p. m. - feet per minute - футов в минуту

f. p. s. - feet per second - футов в секунду

ft - foot, pl feet - фут (30,5 см)

g. p. m. - gallons per minute - галлонов в минуту (3,78 л в Англии, 4,54 л в США)

hp - horse power - лошадиная сила

i. e. - лат. id est = that is - то есть

in. - inch - дюйм (2,54 см)

lb., lbs - pound - фунт (453,6 г)

oz - ounce - унция (28,35 г)

sq. - square - квадратный

v. - volt - напряжение (в вольтах)

viz - лат. videlicet = namely - а именно

w. - watt - ватт

yd. (yds) - yard (yards) - ярд (91,44 см), ярды

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Дитман, И.А. Ore Mining: Учебное пособие/И.А. Дитман, Д.К. Волощенко, Л.Д. Медведер, А.М. Столетняя. – М.: Государственное научно-техническое издательство литературы по горному делу, 1963. – 164 с.

2. Мюллер, В.К. Новый англо-русский словарь/В.К. Мюллер, В.Л. Дашевская, В.А. Каплан. – 9-е изд. – М.: Рус. яз., 2002. – 880 с.

3. Науменков, П.В. Geology and Mining Exploration: Пособие по английскому языку для горно-геологических вузов/П.В. Науменков, И.Н. Нечаева, В.Т. Борисович. - М.: Высш. школа, 1975. - 132 с.

4. Пумпянский, А.Л. Чтение и перевод английской научной и технической литературы: Фонетика, грамматика, лексика/А.Л. Пумпянский. – М.: РИСО АН СССР, 1962. – 448 с.

5. Чистик, М.Я. Mining Practice: Пособие по английскому языку для студентов горных вузов/М.Я. Чистик. – М.: Высш. школа, 1968. – 159 с.

6. White, L. Mine Haul Trucks: Fleet Managers Rate Performance and Service/Lane White // Engineering and Mining Journal. – The USA, Chicago: An Intertec®/K-III Publication, 2001. - №2. – С. 17-25.

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