Билет 14. grammatical features of pronouns as deictics and sustitudes
A pronounis a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: Subject, Object, or Possessive.There are Different Types of Pronouns
For detailed explanation and examples of the types of pronouns refer to Pronounspage.
Demonstrative Pronouns- point out a specific persons, animals, places, things or ideas.
Personal Pronouns- stand in for people, places, things and ideas.
Indefinite Pronouns–replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace.
Intensive Pronouns- emphasize (intensify) a noun or another pronoun.
Interrogative Pronouns–used to begin or introduce interrogative sentences.
Reciprocal Pronouns- show a mutual relationship.
Reflexive Pronouns–point back to the subject of the sentence.
Relative Pronouns- begin a subordinate clause and connect it to another noun that precedes it.In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a word or form that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase. It is a particular case of a pro-form.
Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, although many modern theorists would not regard them as a single distinct word class, because of the variety of functions performed by words which are classed as pronouns. Common types include the personal pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns and indefinite pronouns.
The use of pronouns often involves anaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun is dependent on another referential element. This applies particularly to the (third-person) personal pronouns. The referent of the pronoun is often the same as that of a preceding (or sometimes following) noun phrase, called the antecedent of the pronoun.
Билет 15. The verb.A verb, from the Latin verbummeaning word, is a word(part of speech) that in syntaxconveys an action (bring, read, walk, run,learn), an occurrence (happen, become), or a state of being (be, exist, stand). In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particleto, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected(modified in form) to encode tense, aspect,moodand voice. A verb may also agree with the person, gender, and/or numberof some of its arguments, such as its subject, orobject. In many languages, verbs have a present tense, to indicate that an action is being carried out; a past tense, to indicate that an action has been done; and a future tense, to indicate that an action will be done.Verbs are a necessary component of all sentences. Verbs have two important functions: Some verbs put stalled subjects into motion while other verbs help to clarify the subjects in meaningful ways.Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that follow it and the relationship those words have with the verb itself. There are six types: intransitive, transitive, infinitives, to-be verbs, and two-place transitive (Vg- verb give), and two-place transitive (Vc- verb consider). Depending on the language, verbs may express grammatical tense, aspect, or modality. Grammatical tense[5][6][7] is the use of auxiliary verbs or inflections to convey whether the action or state is before, simultaneous with, or after some reference point. The reference point could be the time of utterance, in which case the verb expresses absolute tense, or it could be a past, present, or future time of reference previously established in the sentence, in which case the verb expressesrelative tense.
Aspect[6][8] expresses how the action or state occurs through time. Important examples include:
perfective aspect, in which the action is viewed in its entirety through completion (as in "I saw the car")
imperfective aspect, in which the action is viewed as ongoing; in some languages a verb could express imperfective aspect more narrowly as:
habitual aspect, in which the action occurs repeatedly (as in "I used to go there every day"), or
continuous aspect, in which the action occurs without pause; continuous aspect can be further subdivided into
stative aspect, in which the situation is a fixed, unevolving state (as in "I know French"), and
progressive aspect, in which the situation continuously evolves (as in "I am running")
perfect, which combines elements of both aspect and tense, and in which both a prior event and the state resulting from it are expressed (as in "I have studied well")
Aspect can either be lexical, in which case the aspect is embedded in the verb's meaning (as in "the sun shines", where "shines" is lexically stative); or it can be grammatically expressed, as in "I am running".
Modality[9] expresses the speaker's attitude toward the action or state given by the verb, especially with regard to degree of necessity, obligation, or permission .