CHAPTER XXXI SENTENCE IN THE TEXT
§ 1.We have repeatedly shown throughout the present work that sentences in continual speech are not used in isolation; they are interconnected both semantically-topically and syntactically.
Inter-sentential connections have come under linguistic investigation but recently. The highest lingual unit which was approached by traditional grammar as liable to syntactic study was the sentence; scholars even specially stressed
that to surpass the boundaries of the sentence was equal to surpassing the boundaries of grammar.
In particular, such an outstanding linguist as L. Bloomfield, while recognising the general semantic connections between sentences in the composition of texts as linguistically relevant, at the same time pointed out that the sentence is the largest grammatically arranged linguistic form, i.e. it is not included into any other linguistic form by a grammatical arrangement.*
However, further studies in this field have demonstrated the inadequacy of the cited thesis. It has been shown that sentences in speech do come under broad grammatical arrangements, do combine with one another on strictly syntactic lines in the formation of larger stretches of both oral talk and written text.
It should be quite clear that, supporting the principle of syntactic approach to arrangement of sentences into a continual text, we do not assert that any sequence of independent sentences forms a syntactic unity. Generally speaking, sentences in a stretch of uninterrupted talk may or may not build up a coherent sequence, wholly depending on the purpose of the speaker. E.g.:
Barbara. Dolly: don't be insincere. Cholly: fetch your concertina and play something for us (B. Shaw).
The cited sequence of two sentences does not form a unity in either syntactic or semantic sense, the sentences being addressed to different persons on different reasons. A disconnected sequence may also have one and the same communication addressee, as in the following case:
Duchess of Berwic... I like him so much. I am quite delighted he's gone! How sweet you're looking! Where do you get your gowns? And now I must tell you how sorry I am for you, dear Margaret (O. Wilde).
But disconnected sequences like these are rather an exception than the rule. Moreover, they do not contradict in the least the idea of a continual topical text as being formed of grammatically interconnected sentences. Indeed, successive sentences in a disconnected sequence mark the corresponding transitions of thought, so each of them can potentially be expanded into a connected sequence bearing on one
* See: Bloomfield L. Language. N.-Y., 1933, p. 170. 362
unifying topic. Characteristically, an utterance of a personage in a work of fiction marking a transition of thought (and breaking the syntactic connection of sentences in the sequence) is usually introduced by a special author's comment. E.g.:
"You know, L.S., you're rather a good sport." Then his tone grew threatening again. "It's a big risk I'm taking. It's the biggest risk I've ever had to take" (C. P. Snow).
As we see, the general idea of a sequence of sentences forming a text includes two different notions. On the one hand, it presupposes a succession of spoken or written utterances irrespective of their forming or not forming a coherent semantic complex. On the other hand, it implies a strictly topical stretch of talk, i.e. a continual succession of sentences centering on a common informative purpose. It is this latter understanding of the text that is syntactically relevant. It is in this latter sense that the text can be interpreted as a lingual element with its two distinguishing features: first, semantic (topical) unity, second, semantico-syntactic cohesion.
§ 2. The primary division of sentence sequences in speech should be based on the communicative direction of their component sentences. From this point of view monologue sequences and dialogue sequences are to be discriminated.
In a monologue, sentences connected in a continual sequence are directed from one speaker to his one or several listeners. Thus, the sequence of this type can be characterised as a one-direction sequence. E.g.:
We'll have a lovely garden. We'll have roses in it and daffodils and a lovely lawn with a swing for little Billy and little Barbara to play on. And we'll have our meals down by the lily pond in summer (K. Waterhouse and H. Hall).
The first scholars who identified a succession of such sentences as a special syntactic unit were the Russian linguists N. S. Pospelov and L. A. Bulakhovsky. The former called the unit in question a "complex syntactic unity", the latter, a "super-phrasal unity". From consistency considerations, the corresponding English term used in this book is the "supra-sentential construction" (see Ch. I).
As different from this, sentences in a dialogue sequence are uttered by the speakers-interlocutors in turn, so that they are directed, as it were, to meet one another; the sequence
of this type, then, should be characterised as a two-direction sequence. E.g.: "Annette, what have you done?" — "I've done what I had to do" (S. Maugham).
It must be noted that two-direction sequences can in principle be used within the framework of a monologue text, by way of an "inner dialogue" (i.e. a dialogue of the speaker with himself). E.g.: What were they jabbering about now in Parliament? Some two-penny-ha'penny tax! (J. Galsworthy).
On the other hand, one-direction sequences can be used in a dialogue, when a response utterance forms not a rejoinder, but a continuation of the stimulating utterance addressed to the same third party, or to both speakers themselves as a collective self-addressee, or having an indefinite addressee. E.g.:
St. Erth. All the money goes to fellows who don't know a horse from a haystack. —Canynge (profoundly). And care less. Yes! We want men racing to whom a horse means something (J. Galsworthy). Elуоt. I'm glad we didn't go out tonight. Amanda. Or last night. El-yоt. Or the night before. Amanda. There's no reason to, really, when we're cosy here (N. Coward).
Thus, the direction of communication should be looked upon as a deeper characteristic of the sentence-sequence than its outer, purely formal presentation as either a monologue (one man's speech) or a dialogue (a conversation between two parties). In order to underline these deep distinguishing features of the two types of sequences, we propose to name them by the types of sentence-connection used. The formation of a one-direction sequence is based on syntactic cumulation of sentences, as different from syntactic composition of sentences making them into one composite sentence. Hence, the supra-sentential construction of one-direction communicative type can be called a cumulative sequence, or a "cumuleme". The formation of a two-direction sequence is based on its sentences being positioned to meet one another. Hence, we propose to call this type of sentence-connection by the term "occursive", and the supra-sentential construction based on occursive connection, by the term "occurseme".
Furthermore, it is not difficult to see that from the hierarchical point of view the occurseme as an element of the system occupies a place above the cumuleme. Indeed, if the cumuleme is constructed by two or more sentences joined by cumulation, the occurseme can be constructed by two
or more cumulemes, since the utterances of the interlocutors can be formed not only by separate sentences, but by cumulative sequences as well. E.g.:
"Damn you, stop talking about my wife. If you mention her name again I swear I'll knock you down." — "Oh no, you won't. You're too great a gentleman to hit a feller smaller than yourself" (S. Maugham).
As we see, in formal terms of the segmental lingual hierarchy, the supra-proposemic level (identified in the first chapter of the book) can be divided into two sublevels: the lower one — "cumulemic", and the higher one — "occursemic". On the other hand, a fundamental difference between the two units in question should be carefully noted lying beyond the hierarchy relation, since the occurseme, as different from the cumuleme, forms part of a conversation, i.e. is essentially produced not by one, but by two or several speakers, or, linguistically, not by one, but by two or several individual sub-lingual systems working in an intercourse contact.
As for the functional characteristic of the two higher segmental units of language, it is representative of the function of the text as a whole. The signemic essence of the text is exposed in its topic. The monologue text, or "discourse", is then a topical entity; the dialogue text, or "conversation", is an exchange-topical entity. The cumuleme and occurseme are component units of these two types of texts, which means that they form, respectively, subtopical and exchange-sub-topical units as regards the embedding text as a whole. Within the framework of the system of language, however, since the text as such does not form any "unit" of it, the cumuleme and occurseme can simply be referred to as topical elements (correspondingly, topical and exchange-topical), without the "sub "-specification.
§ 3. Sentences in a cumulative sequence can be connected either "prospectively" or "retrospectively".
Prospective ("epiphoric", "cataphoric") cumulation is effected by connective elements that relate a given sentence to one that is to follow it. In other words, a prospective connector signals a continuation of speech: the sentence containing it is semantically incomplete. Very often prospective connectors are notional words that perform the cumulative function for the nonce. E.g.:
I tell you, one of two things must happen. Either out of that darkness some new creation will come to supplant us as we have supplanted the animals, or the heavens will fall in thunder and destroy us (B. Shaw).
The prospective connection is especially characteristic of the texts of scientific and technical works. E.g.:
Let me add a word of caution here. The solvent vapour drain enclosure must be correctly engineered and constructed to avoid the possibility of a serious explosion (From a technical journal).
As different from prospective cumulation, retrospective (or "anaphoric") cumulation is effected by connective elements that relate a given sentence to the one that precedes it and is semantically complete by itself. Retrospective cumulation is the more important type of sentence connection of the two; it is the basic type of cumulation in ordinary speech. E.g.:
What curious "class" sensation was this? Or was it merely fellow-feeling with the hunted, a tremor at the way things found one out? (J. Galsworthy).
§ 4. On the basis of the functional nature of connectors, cumulation is divided into two fundamental types: conjunctive cumulation and correlative cumulation.
Conjunctive cumulation is effected by conjunction-like connectors. To these belong, first, regular conjunctions, both coordinative and subordinative; second, adverbial and parenthetical sentence-connectors (then, yet, however, consequently, hence, besides, moreover, nevertheless, etc.). Adverbial and parenthetical sentence-connectors may be both specialised, i.e. functional and semi-functional words, and non-specialised units performing the connective functions for the nonce. E.g.:
There was an indescribable agony in his voice. And as if his own words of pain overcame the last barrier of his self-control, he broke down (S. Maugham). There was no train till nearly eleven, and she had to bear her impatience as best she could. At last it was time to start, and she put on her gloves (S. Maugham).
Correlative cumulation is effected by a pair of elements one of which, the "succeedent", refers to the other, the
"antecedent", used in the foregoing sentence; by means of this reference the succeeding sentence is related to the preceding one, or else the preceding sentence is related to the succeeding one. As we see, by its direction correlative cumulation may be either retrospective or prospective, as different from conjunctive cumulation which is only retrospective.
Correlative cumulation, in its turn, is divided into substitutional connection and representative connection. Substitutional cumulation is based on the use of substitutes. E.g.:
Spolding woke me with the apparently noiseless efficiency of the trained housemaid. She drew the curtains, placed a can of hot water in my basin, covered it with the towel, and retired (E. J. Howard).
A substitute may have as its antecedent the whole of the preceding sentence or a clausal part of it. Furthermore, substitutes often go together with conjunctions, effecting cumulation of mixed type. E.g.:
And as I leaned over the rail methought that all the little stars in the water were shaking with austere merriment. But it may have been only the ripple of the steamer, after all (R. Kipling).
Representative correlation is based on representative elements which refer to one another without the factor of replacement. E.g.:
She should be here soon. I must tell Phipps, I am not in to any one else (O. Wilde). I went home. Maria accepted my departure indifferently (E. J. Howard).
Representative correlation is achieved also by repetition, which may be complicated by different variations. E.g.:
Well, the night was beautiful, and the great thing not to be a pig. Beauty and not being a pig\ Nothing much else to it (J. Galsworthy).
§ 5. A cumuleme (cumulative supra-sentential construction) is formed by two or more independent sentences making up a topical syntactic unity. The first of the sentences in a cumuleme is its "leading" sentence, the succeeding sentences are "sequential".
The cumuleme is delimited in the text by a finalising intonation contour (cumuleme-contour) with a prolonged pause
(cumuleme-pause); the relative duration of this pause equals two and a half moras ("mora" — the conventional duration of a short syllable), as different from the sentence-pause equalling only two moras.
The cumuleme, like a sentence, is a universal unit of language in so far as it is used in all the functional varieties of speech. For instance, the following cumuleme is part of the author's speech of a work of fiction:
The boy winced at this. It made him feel hot and uncomfortable all over. He knew well how careful he ought to be, and yet, do what he could, from time to time his forgetfulness of the part betrayed him into unreserve (S. Butler).
Compare a cumuleme in a typical newspaper article:
We have come a long way since then, of course. Unemployment insurance is an accepted fact. Only the most die-hard reactionaries, of the Goldwater type, dare to come out against it (from Canadian Press).
Here is a sample cumuleme of scientific-technical report prose:
To some engineers who apply to themselves the word "practical" as denoting the possession of a major virtue, applied research is classed with pure research as something highbrow they can do without. To some business men, applied research is something to have somewhere in the organisation to demonstrate modernity and enlightenment. And people engaged in applied research are usually so satisfied in the belief that what they are doing is of interest and value that they are not particularly concerned about the niceties of definition (from a technical journal).
Poetical text is formed by cumulemes, too:
She is not fair to outward view, | As many maidens be; | Her loveliness I never knew | Until she smiled on me. |Oh, then I saw her eye was bright, | A well of love, a spring of light (H. Coleridge).
But the most important factor showing the inalienable and universal status of the cumuleme in language is the indispensable use of cumulemes in colloquial speech (which is reflected in plays, as well as in conversational passages in works of various types of fiction).
The basic semantic types of cumulemes are "factual" (narrative and descriptive), "modal" (reasoning, perceptive, etc.), and mixed. Here is an example of a narrative cumuleme:
Three years later, when Jane was an Army driver, she was sent one night to pick up a party of officers who had been testing defences on the cliff. She found the place where the road ran between a cleft almost to the beach, switched off her engine and waited, hunched in her great-coat, half asleep, in the cold black silence. She waited for an hour and woke in a fright to a furious voice coming out of the night (M. Dickens).
Compare this with modal cumulemes of various topical standings:
She has not gone? I thought she gave a second performance at two? (S. Maugham) (A reasoning cumuleme of perceptional variety)
Are you kidding? Don't underrate your influence, Mr. O'Keefe. Dodo's in. Besides, I've lined up Sandra Straughan to work with her (A. Hailey). (A remonstrative cumuleme)
Don't worry. There will be a certain amount of unpleasantness but I will have some photographs taken that will be very useful at the inquest. There's the testimony of the gunbearers and the driver too. You're perfectly all right (E. Hemingway). (A reasoning cumuleme expressing reassurance) Etc.
§ 6. Cumuleme in writing is regularly expressed by a paragraph, but the two units are not wholly identical.
In the first place, the paragraph is a stretch of written or typed literary text delimited by a new (indented) line at the beginning and an incomplete line at the close. As different from this, the cumuleme, as we have just seen, is essentially a feature of all the varieties of speech, both oral and written, both literary and colloquial.
In the second place, the paragraph is a polyfunctional unit of written speech and as such is used not only for the written representation of a cumuleme, but also for the introduction of utterances of a dialogue (dividing an occurseme into parts), as well as for the introduction of separate points in various enumerations.
In the third place, the paragraph in a monologue speech can contain more than one cumuleme. For instance, the
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following paragraph is divided into three parts, the first formed by a separate sentence, the second and third ones presenting cumulemes. For the sake of clarity, we mark the borders between the parts by double slash:
When he had left the house Victorina stood quite still, with hands pressed against her chest. // She had slept less than he. Still as a mouse, she had turned the thought: "Did I take him in? Did I?" And if not — what? // She took out the notes which had bought — or sold — their happiness, and counted them once more. And the sense of injustice burned within her (J. Galsworthy).
The shown division is sustained by the succession of the forms of the verbs, namely, the past indefinite and past perfect, precisely marking out the events described.
In the fourth place, the paragraph in a monologue speech can contain only one sentence. The regular function of the one-sentence paragraph is expressive emphasis. E.g.:
The fascists may spread over the land, blasting their way with weight of metal brought from other countries. They may advance aided by traitors and by cowards. They may destroy cities and villages and try to hold the people in slavery. But you cannot hold any people in slavery.
The Spanish people will rise again as they have always risen before against tyranny (E. Hemingway).
In the cited passage the sentence-paragraph marks a transition from the general to the particular, and by its very isolation in the text expressively stresses the author's belief in the invincible will of the Spanish people who are certain to smash their fascist oppressors in the long run.
On the other hand, the cumuleme cannot be prolonged beyond the limits of the paragraph, since the paragraphal border-marks are the same as those of the cumuleme, i.e. a characteristic finalising tone, a pause of two and a half moras. Besides, we must bear in mind that both multicumuleme paragraphs and one-sentence paragraphs are more or less occasional features of the monologue text. Thus, we return to our initial thesis that the paragraph, although it is a literary-compositional, not a purely syntactic unit of the text, still as a rule presents a cumuleme; the two units, if not identical, are closely correlative.
§ 7. The introduction of the notion of cumuleme in linguistics helps specify and explain the two peculiar and rather important border-line phenomena between the sentence and the sentential sequence.
The first of these is known under the heading of "parcellation". The parcellated construction ("parcellatum") presents two or more collocations ("parcellas") separated by a sentence-tone but related to one another as parts of one and the same sentence. In writing the parts, i.e., respectively, the "leading parcella" and "sequential parcella", are delimited by a full stop (finality mark). E.g.:
There was a sort of community pride attached to it now. Or shame at its unavoidability (E.Stephens). Why be so insistent, Jim? If he doesn't want to tell you (J. O'Hara). ...I realised I didn't feel one way or another about him. Then. I do now (J. O'Hara).
Having recourse to the idea of transposition, we see that the parcellated construction is produced as a result of transposing a sentence into a cumuleme. This kind of transposition adds topical significance to the sequential parcella. The emphasising function of parcellation is well exposed by the transformation of de-transposition. This transformation clearly deprives the sequential parcella of its position of topical significance, changing it into an ordinary sentence-part. Cf.:
... → There was a sort of community pride attached to it now or shame at its unavoidability. ...→ Why be so insistent, Jim, if he doesn't want to tell you? ... → I didn't feel one way or another about him then.
With some authors parcellation as the transposition of a sentence into a cumuleme can take the form of forced paragraph division, i.e. the change of a sentence into a supra-cumuleme. E.g.:
... It was she who seemed adolescent and overly concerned, while he sat there smiling fondly at her, quite self-possessed, even self-assured, and adult.
And naked. His nakedness became more intrusive by the second, until she half arose and said with urgency, "You have to go and right now, young man" (E. Stephens).
The second of the border-line phenomena in question is the opposite of parcellation, it consists in forcing two
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different sentences into one, i.e. in transposing a cumuleme into a sentence. The cumuleme-sentence construction is characteristic of uncareful and familiar speech; in a literary text it is used for the sake of giving a vivid verbal characteristic to a personage. E.g.:
I'm not going to disturb her and that's flat, miss (A. Christie). The air-hostess came down the aisle then to warn passengers they were about to land and please would everyone fasten their safety belts (B. Hedworth).
The transposition of a cumuleme into a sentence occurs also in literary passages dealing with reasoning and mental perceptions. E.g.:
If there were moments when Soames felt cordial, they were such as these. He had nothing against the young man; indeed, he rather liked the look of him; but to see the last of almost anybody was in a sense a relief; besides, there was this question of what he had overheard, and to have him about the place without knowing would be a continual temptation to compromise with one's dignity and ask him what it was (J. Galsworthy).
As is seen from the example, one of the means of transposing a cumuleme into a sentence in literary speech is the use of half-finality punctuation marks (here, a semicolon).
§ 8. Neither cumulemes, nor paragraphs form the upper limit of textual units of speech. Paragraphs are connected within the framework of larger elements of texts making up different paragraph groupings. Thus, above the process of cumulation as syntactic connection of separate sentences, supra-cumulation should be discriminated as connection of cumulemes and paragraphs into larger textual unities of the correspondingly higher subtopical status. Cf.:
... That first slip with my surname was just like him; and afterwards, particularly when he was annoyed, apprehensive, or guilty because of me, he frequently called me Ellis.
So, in the smell of Getliffe's tobacco, I listened to him as he produced case after case, sometimes incomprehensibly, because of his allusive slang, often inaccurately. He loved the law (C. P. Snow).
In the given example, the sentence beginning the second paragraph is cumulated (i.e. supra-cumulated) to the previous paragraph, thus making the two of them into a paragraph grouping.
Moreover, even larger stretches of text than primary paragraph groupings can be supra-cumulated to one another in the syntactic sense, such as chapters and other compositional divisions. For instance, compare the end of Chapter XXIII and the beginning of Chapter XXIV of J. Galsworthy's "Over the River":
Chapter XXIII. ... She went back to Condaford with her father by the morning train, repeating to her Aunt the formula: "I'm not going to be ill."
Chapter XXIV. But she was ill, and for a month in her conventional room at Condaford often wished she were dead and done with. She might, indeed, quite easily have died...
Can, however, these phenomena signify that the sentence is simply a sub-unit in language system, and that "real" informative-syntactic elements of this system are not sentences, but various types of cumulemes or supra-cumulemes? — In no wise.
Supra-sentential connections cannot be demonstrative of the would-be "secondary", "sub-level" role of the sentence as an element of syntax by the mere fact that all the cumulative and occursive relations in speech, as we have seen from the above analysis, are effected by no other unit than the sentence, and by no other structure than the inner structure of the sentence; the sentence remains the central structural-syntactic element in all the formations of topical significance. Thus, even in the course of a detailed study of various types of supra-sentential constructions, the linguist comes to the confirmation of the classical truth that the two basic units of language are the word and the sentence: the word as a unit of nomination, the sentence as a unit of predication. And it is through combining different sentence-predications that topical reflections of reality are achieved in all the numerous forms of lingual intercourse.
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SUBJECT INDEX
absolute and relative generalisation 77; 79; 81
absolute construction 112; 114; 180; 348-350
actional and statal verbs: see verb subclasses
active (verb-form) 177-179
actual division of the sentence 243-250; 256-262; 305
address 269
adjective 38; 41; 203-220; comparison of a. 213-219; subclasses: evaluative, specificative a. 206-207; qualitative, relative a. 205-207
adjectivid 213
adjunct-word 232
adverb 39; 220-229; comparison of a. 227-228; subclasses: functional 226-227; structural 223-226; a. in -ly 228-229
adverbial clause 321-328; subtypes: circumstantial cl. 325-327; localisation cl. 322-323; parenthetical cl. 327-328; qualification cl. 323-325
adverbial complication 347-350
adverbial modifier 98; 101; 235; 269
adverbid 223
agreement (concord) between subject and predicate 135-136; 232-233
agreement in sense (notional concord) 135-136
"allo-emic" theory 22-24
allo-term22
analytical case 65
analytical form 34-35; 85; 107; 214-219
anaphoric connection: see retrospective connection
appositive clause 318-321
appurtenance 69
article 40; 74-85; identification 74-75; definite a. 76; indefinite a. 76-77; functions 76-83; a. with proper nouns 84; a. determination paradigm 85
artificial utterances 8
aspect 108; 155-176; 182
a-stative prefix 211
aspective meaning 94
asyndetic connection 231; 298-300; 335-337
attribute 235; 269; contact noun a. 50-51; descriptive, limiting a. 80
attributive clause 317-321
attributive complication 345-347
autosemantic and synsemantic elements 229
auxiliary 25; 34; 85; 89
axes of sentence 274-278
be going + Infinitive 151-152 broad-meaning word 48
case 62-74
cataphoric connection: see prospective connection
classes of words: syntactic cl. of w. 42-45
clausalisation 283-284
clause 289-290
cohesion of text 363
combinability: с of noun 50-51; с of verb 97-102; с of infinitive 105-106; с of gerund 109-110; с of pres. participle
111-112; с. of past participle 112-113; с. of adjective 204-205; c. of adverb 221-222
communicative direction 363
communicative purpose 251-255
communicative sentence types 251-268; cardinal с s. t. 251-252; intermediary с s. t. 262-268
complement 98-99
complementive and supplementive verbs: see verb subclasses
completive connection: objective с. с. 233-235; qualifying с. с. 235
completivity 99-101
complex balance 314
complex object 106; 112; 113-114; 281; 343-345
complex sentence 303-332
complex subject 106; 112; 114; 342-343; 345
composite sentence 288-302; 303-361
compound sentence 332-340
concise composition 301-302
conditional mood: see subjunctive mood
conjugation 37
conjunction 40; 41; 45; 231; see also syndetic connection
conjunctive cumulation 366
connective 41-42
consective mood: see subjunctive mood
constant feature category 36; 59
constituent parts of language 6
constructional system of syntactic paradigmatics 283-285
contact noun attribute: see attribute
continuous (verb-form) 155-156; 158-164
continuum 19; 119
conversion 87; 120; 212-213; 224
co-occurrence 23
coordinative connection of clauses 296-298; 332-340; marked, unmarked с. с. 336-337; open, closed с. с. 339-340
coordinative connection of sentence constituents 270-271; 352-353
coordinators 335
corpus 23
correlative cumulation 366-367 countable, uncountable nouns 59-
cumulation 16; 231; 300-301; 363-367
cumuleme 364; 367-371;
cumuleme-sentence 372; factual, modal, mixed c. 369
declarative sentence 251; 256-257 declension 37
deep structure 281; 340
degrees of comparison: of adjectives 213-219; of adverbs 227 deixis (deictic function) 39; 47; 129-130
deletion in transformations: see transformational procedures derivation history 280
derivational perspective 46
descriptions of language 6-7
descriptive attribute: see attribute
determiner 74-75; 83-84; 85
development (category of) 108;
158; 158-166; 176
diachrony: see synchrony and diachrony
dialogue speech 363-365
differential features 28-31 distributional analysis 23-24 distribution: complementary, contrastive, non-contrastive d. 23-24
do-auxiliary 164-166
domination (dominational connection) 232-235; reciprocal d. 232-233 double predicate 92; 342-343
edited speech 291
elative superlative 215-218 elementary sentence 273-274 elliptical article construction 77 elliptical sentence 274-278
eme-term22
environment 23-24
equipollent opposition 29; 30
equipotent connection 230-231 exclamatory sentence 254-255; 362 exfixation 26
expanded and unexpanded sentence 273-274 extreme quality 220
finitude (category of) 88; 104; 137 fluctuant conversive 224 for-to infinitive phrase 106 functional expansion in transformations; see transformational procedures
functional sentence perspective: see actual division of the sentence functional words 39-40; 44-45; 47;
future tense 128; 143-154 futurity option (category of) 150
gender 53-62; formal g. 56 genitive case 62-64; 66-68; 69-72; g. of adverbial 71; g. of agent 70; g. of author 70; g. of comparison 71; g. of destination 71; g. of dispensed qualification 71; g. of integer 70rg. of patient 71; g. of possessor 69; g. of quantity 72; g. of received qualification 70
gerund 108-110; 116-123; 175 gerundial participle 122
gradual opposition 29
grammatical category 27-31; 35-
37; 156-158
grammatical form 27-31
grammatical idiomatism 34-35
grammatical meaning 27
grammatical morphemes 21 grammatical opposition 28; 29-
32; 35
grammatical repetition 35
grammatical suffixation: see outer inflexion
hybrid categorial formation 36-37 hypotaxis 294-296
immanent category 35-36
immediate constituents 269-271
imperative (verb-form) 188-189 imperative mood 188-189; 190-
191 imperative sentence: see inducive
sentence imperfect (verb-form) 156-157; 166; 173-174
incorrect utterances 8-9 indefinite (verb-form) 155; 172;
marked i. 166
inducive sentence 257-259
infinitive 89; 105-108; 115-118; 161-162; 175; 179-180; marked, unmarked i. 107 infixation 26; 33
inflexion 21; inner, outer i. 33-34 informative purpose 363 informative sentence perspective
ing-form problem 119 insert sentence 303; 342 interjection 40 intermediary phenomena 19; 36-
37; 302
interrogative sentence 259-261 inter-sentential connection 361-
363 intonational arrangement in
transformations: see transformational procedures inversive sentence 323
junctional form 134
kernel element: see head-word kernel sentence 280-281
half-gerund 118-123
head-word (kernel element) 232 hierarchy of levels 14
homonymy 11; 24
language: definition 6 language and speech 11-12 larger syntax 15 leading clause 335 leading sentence 367 let+Infinitive 190-191
letter 14
level of constructions 18
levels of language 14-17
lexemic level 15
lexical morphemes 21
lexical paradigm of nomination
45-47
lexicalisation of plural 58 lexico-grammatical category 38 limited case 66
limiting attribute: see attribute limitive and unlimitive verbs 95-
97; 113; 155 ;162-164; 173-174;
linear expansion 342 "linguistic sentence" 239 link-verb 91; 100 logical accent 249-250
macrosystem (supersystem) 11 marked (strong, positive) member
28; 30; 32 matrix sentence 303 may/might+Infinitive 190
meaningful functions of grammar
meaningful gender 56-57
medial voice 180-183 members of sentence: see axes of
sentence
microsystem (subsystem) 11
middle voice meaning 183
modal representation (category of)
117 modal verb 89-90; 126; 127; 161;
modal word 40 modality 239
modifier hierarchy 269-270 monologue speech 363-365
monolithic and segregative complex sentences 328-331
mononomination 15 monopredicative sentence 268 mood (category of) 185-203
morph 23
morpheme 15; 17-26
morpheme types: additive, replacive m. 25-26; continuous, discontinuous m. 26; free, bound m. 24; overt, covert m. 25; root, affixal m. 21; segmental, supra-segmental m. 25
morphemic composition of the
word 22
morphemic distribution 23-24 morphemic level 15 morphemic structure 17-26 morphological arrangement in transformations: see transformational procedures morphology 17
names 42; 49
native form 134
neutralisation 32; 54; 95-96; 117; 121; 127; 136; 150; 153-154; 162-164; 173-175; 183; 184; 192; 203
nominalisation 222-223; 233; 235-236; 241-242; complete, partial n. 284
nominal phrase complication 350
nominative aspect of the sentence 240-243
nominative case 73
nominative correlation 19; 20
nominative division of the sentence 243
nominative meaning 15; complete, incomplete n. m. 39
noncommunicative utterances 253
non-contrastive distribution 23-24
non-finite verb 87; see also verbids
non-terms 30
notional link-verbs 92
noun 38; 40; 49-85; general characteristics 49-53; subclasses 52-53; categories 53-85
noun+noun combination 50-51
number (category of): number of noun 57-62; number of verb 128-136
numeral 39
object 50; 98-100; 234-235; 269
object clause 314-316
object sharing 343-346
objective and subjective verbs: see verb subclasses
objective case 73
objective connection: see completive connection
obligatory sentence parts: 272-274
obligatory valency 98
oblique and direct mood meaning 186
occurseme 364
occursive connection 363-365
one-axis sentence 274-277
opposition 27-33; 54; 57; 81-83; 140-141; 143-145; 156-157; 158; 166; 177
oppositional reduction (substitution) 31-32; 59; 60; 61-62; 95-96; see also neutralisation; transposition
optional sentence parts 272-273
optional valency 98
organisational function of verb 97
paradigm 13; 28; p. of nomination
46-47
paradigmatic relations 13-14 paradigmatic syntax 47; 278-279 paragraph 292; 369-370 parataxis 295-296 parcellation 371 parenthesis 269
parenthetical clause 30.1; 327-328 parsing of sentence 269-270 participle past (participle II) 112-115; 180
participle present (participle I) 111-112; 118-123; 162; 174
particle 40; 68 particle case 68; 74 parts of speech 37-42; criteria of
identification 37 parts of the sentence 269-272 passive (verb-form) 178-180; p. of action, of state 183-185
passivised and non-passivised
verbs: see verb subclasses past tense 142 peak of informative perspective 244
perfect (verb-form) 156; 166-176 perfect continuous (verb-form)
170; 172-173
person (category of) 125-137 personal pronouns 72-74 phatic function 306 phoneme 14 phonemic distribution 23
phonemic interchange 26
phonemic level 14
phonological opposition 28-29
phrasalisation 284
phrase: stable, free ph. 15; notional, formative ph. 229-230
phrase genitive 66-68
phrasemic level 15
plane of content 10; 29
plane of expression 10; 29
pleni- and semi-constructions 341
pleni-compounding: see semi-compounding
plural: absolute, common pl. 60-62; descriptive pl. 62; discrete pl., pl. of measure 58: multitude pl. 61; repetition pl. 62; set pl. 61
pluralia tantum 59
polar phenomena 19-20
polynomination 15
polypredication 289
polypredicative sentence 268; 289
polysemy 10-11
positional arrangement in transformations: see transformational procedures
positional case 64
positional classes 43-44
possessive postposition 66-67
postpositive 224-225
predicate 232-233; 269
predication 15-16; 86; 231-233; 237; 239-240; 242; 250
predicative aspect of the sentence 240-243
predicative clause 313-314
predicative connection 232-233
predicative functions 285-288
predicative line 268, 288
predicative load 287-288
predicative system of syntactic paradigmatics 283; 285-288
predicative zeroing 325
predicator verbs 89-92
prefix 21
preposition 40; 41; 45; 65; 69
prepositional case 65
prescriptive approach 7-8
present tense 141-143
primary sentence 285
primary syntactic system 285-288
primary time (tense) 140-143
principal clause 304-306; merger, non-merger pr. cl. 305
printed text 291 privative opposition 28-31 processual representation (category of) 117; 118 pronominal case 73-74 pronoun 39; 47-48; 72-74 proposeme 15 proposemic level 15 prospective connection 365-366 purpose of grammar 7-10
qualifying connection: see completive connection
qualitative adverbs 226-227
quantifiers 59; 60
quantitative adverbs 226-227
question: pronominal q. 259-260; alternative q. 260-261
reciprocal voice meaning 181 reduction: thematic r. 250 reflective category 36; 126 reflexive voice meaning 180-182 re-formulation of oppositions 29 relative generalisation: see absolute and relative generalisation repetition plural: see plural replacive morpheme: see morpheme types
representative correlation 367 representative role of pronouns 48 retrospective connection 365-366 retrospective coordination (category of) 108; 110; 156; 166-176; 192; 194-195
reverse comparison 218-219 rheme 79; 244
rhetorical question 264-265
rules of grammar 7-10
scripted speech 293-294
secondary (potential) predication 87; 104
segmental morpheme: see morpheme types
segmental units 14
segregative complex sentences: see monolythic and segregative complex sentences
selectional combinability 52
seme (semantic feature) 30; 59
semi-bound morpheme 25
semi-clause 342
semi-complex sentence 340-351; identification 340-341
semi-composite sentence 268; 301-302; 340-361
semi-compound sentence 351-361; identification 351-353
semi-compounding: marked, unmarked s.-c. 354; homosyndetic, heterosyndetic s.-c. 358-359; vs pleni-compounding 360-361
semi-predication 104; 106; 109-110; 112; 114; 233
sentence (definition) 236
sentence length 290-293
sentence sequence 362-363
sequence of tenses 154-155
sequential clause 335
sequential sentence 367
set plural: see plural
sex indicators 55-56
should + Infinitive 190
sign 11; 12; 14
signeme 14
significative meaning 15
simple sentence 268-288; identification 268-269; parts of s. s. 269-272: structural types of s. s. 274-277; semantic types of s. s. 278
singular: absolute, common s. 59-60
singularia tantum 59
situation-determinant 221
smaller syntax 15
specifiers of names 49
spective mood: see subjunctive mood
speech: see language and speech
split infinitive 107
statal verbs: see verb subclasses
stative 41; 207-212
stem 21; 87
stipulative mood: see subjunctive mood
structural meaning 44
subcategorisation 40-41
subclass migration of verbs 102
sub-conjunctives 355
subject 50; 98; 132-136; 232-233;
subject clause 311-313 subject sharing 342-343 subjunctive mood (verb-form): spective m. 187-190; modal spective (considerative, desiderative, imperative) m. 190-193; conditional (stipulative, consective) m. 193-200 subordinate clauses 303; 306-332; classification 306-311; cl. of primary nominal positions 312-316; cl. of secondary nominal positions 317-321; cl. of adverbial positions 321-328 subordination: s. of sentence constituents 269-271; s. of clauses 296-298; obligatory, optional s. 328-331; parallel, consecutive s. 331-332
subordination perspective 332 subordination ranks 269-270 subordinates 309-311 substantivisation 49; 212-213 substitute 49; 73 substitution in transformations: see transformational procedures substitution testing 43-44; 76 substitutional correlation 367 substitutional function 47-48 suffix 21
superposition 256; 259; 260 supplement 98 suppletivity 26; 33; 46-47; 60; 61;
74; 85; 90; 127; 153 supra-cumulation 372-373 supra-proposemic level 16 supra-segmental units 14; 25 supra-sentential construction 16; 363
surface structure 281; 340 syllable 14 synchronic system 11 synchrony and diachrony 11 syndetic connection 231; 298-300;
336-337; 354-359 synoriymy 11
synsemantic elements: see autosemantic and synsemantic elements
syntactic classes of words 42-45 syntactic derivation 279-281 syntactic paradigm of predicative functions 286
syntagma 12-13
syntagmatic connection 229-236
syntagmatic relations 12-13
syntax 17
synthetical form 32-34
system in language 11-14
systemic approach 11
temporality 137
tense 137-155; 158; 166; 168; 185
tense-retrospect shift 194-195
text 361-373
theme 79; 244
time: absolutive, relative t. 137-140; 144; 154-155
time coordination (category of) 156
time correlation (category of) 170
to-marker
topical elements of text 365
transform 279-280
transformation 279-284
transformational procedures 281-283
transformational relations 179; 279 transition in the actual division 244 transitive and intransitive verbs: see verb subclasses transitivity 99
transposition 32; 62; 67; 83; 84; 85; 142; 163; 318
two-axis sentence 274-277
two-base transformation 284
unexpanded sentence: see expanded and unexpanded sentence
unity of text 363
unmarked (weak, negative) member 28; 30
utterance: situation utterance, response utterance 253-254
valency: obligatory, optional v.
97-102; 273 274 valency partner 97-98 variable feature category 36; 59 verb 39; 40; 85-203
verb subclasses: actional, statal v. 92-94; complementive, supplementive v. 99-102; limitive, unlimitive v. 95-97; objective, subjective, transitive, intransitive v. 99-101; passivised, non-passivised v. 177; perfective, imperfective v. 96-97; personal, impersonal v. 100; v. of full nominative value 89; 92-102; v. of partial nominative value 89-92
verbids 88-89; 102-123
voice (category of) 108; 110; 176-185
voluntary and non-voluntary future 148-151
word 15; 17-22; definitions of
w. 18
word-morpheme 20; 107 word-sentence 236-237 written speech 293-294
zero article 77-80; 82 zeroing: see deletion; reduction zero morpheme 25; 34 zero-representation 133; see also elliptical sentence; reduction
Марк Яковлевич Блох