Mandatory units to be completed for each
Route within each level.
* These units are available for accreditation in
addition to those necessary for the full NVQ/SVQ, if
required.
** This unit appears as an optional unit for
motorcycle technicians within the M & R Level 2
S/NVQ framework.
Units
Level 2
MET/Body Fitting
Level 2
Body repair
Level 2
Refinishing
Level 3
Refinishing
Level 3
MET/Body fitting
Level 3
Body repair
Mandatory framework
Mandatory framework
Mandatory framework
Mandatory framework
Mandatory framework
Mandatory framework
Preface xvii
Table P2Automotive skills: S/NVQ units and related sections
Units Related sections
G1 Contribute to workplace good housekeeping 2.1–2.8; 3.5; 12.6; 13.5
G2 Ensure your own actions, reduce risks to health 2.1–2.8; 9.13; 11.8; 12.6; 15.6; 16.11
and safety
G3 Maintain positive working relationships N/A
BP01 Remove and fit basic Mechanical, Electrical and Trim 1.3–1.5; 13.18
(MET) components to vehicles
BP02 Remove and fit non-welded non-structural 14.4.4–14.4.6
vehicle body panels
BP03 Remove and fit non-welded non-structural motorcycle N/A
body panels
BP04 Remove, renew and refit Mechanical, Electrical and 1.13–1.5; 13.18
Trim (MET) units within vehicle systems
BP05 Remove and replace vehicle non-structural 1.3–1.5; 3.1; 3.17; 4.13; 7.1–7.8;
body panels 14.4.9–14.4.11
BP06 Repair vehicle non-structural body panels 13.1–13.16
BP07 Prepare vehicle panels to accept foundation and topcoats 1.5; 16.9; 17.12–17.13
BP08 Prepare and apply foundation materials to vehicles 17.13; 17.16
BP09 Repair minor vehicle paint defects 17.5; 17.11
BP10 Carry out complete vehicle refinishing operations 17.1–17.20
BP11 Mix and match vehicle paint colours 17.1–17.6
BP12 Identify and rectify vehicle paint defects and faults 17.11; 17.12; 17.15; 17.19
BP13 Remove and replace vehicle body panels 1.1–1.5; 3.1; 7.1–7.8
BP14 Repair vehicle body panels 13.1–13.17; 14.1–14.5; 16.1–16.11
BP15 Remove and reinstate vehicle mechanical and electrical 13.18
systems and assemblies following accident damage
BP16 Remove and reinstate vehicle trim fitments following 4.13; 13.16.10; 14.4.9–14.4.11; 3.24.3
accident damage
BP17 Rectify vehicle misalignment 14.1–14.5
BP18 Repair glass reinforced panels and vehicle Bodies 16.1–16.11
MR06 Inspect vehicles N/A
MR09 Valet vehicles 14.4.14
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my appreciation of assistance given by my colleagues in the Body Work and Painting
Section at Gateshead College, and especially that of Mr. O. Carr (NCTEC Final, CGLI Final Motor
Vehicle Painting and Industrial Finishing), who is a lecturer in motor vehicle spray painting and industrial
finishing and has compiled the information and illustrations in Chapter 17. I am also grateful for the
efficient help given by the library staff of the college.
I wish to thank my wife Norma for the many hours spent working at the computer to assist me again
throughout the revision of this edition. Also I would like to take this opportunity to thank my son Andrew
for the production of some of the photographs taken especially for this edition.
I would like to thank ICI’s Autocolor International Bodyshop Planning Consultant, Mr Ernest Godfrey,
a partner at Pickles Godfrey Design Partnership; Martin Ferguson, Planning Manager of Dana
Distribution Limited; and Gill Nichol, Editor of Bodyshop Magazine; for helping me compile the chapter
on bodyshop planning. I would also like to take this opportunity of offering my sincere thanks to the
following firms and/or their representatives who have so readily cooperated with me by permitting the
reproduction of data, illustrations and photographs:
AGA Ltd
Al Welders Ltd
Akzo Coatings PLC
Alcan Design and Development
Alkor Plastics (UK) Ltd
Aluminium Federation Ltd
Ambi-Rad Ltd
ARO Welding Ltd
Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd
Auchard Development Co. Ltd
Autoglym
Autokraft Ltd
Auto-Quote
Avdel Ltd
Bayer UK Ltd
Berger Industrial Coatings
Black and Decker Ltd
Blackburn College of Technology
Blackhawk Automotive Ltd
BMW
BOC Ltd
Bodyshop Magazine
Bodymaster UK
Bondaglass-Voss Ltd
Bostick Ltd
BP Chemicals (UK) Ltd
British Motor Industry Heritage Trust
British Standards Institution
British Steel Stainless
Brooklands College
Brooklands Museum
BSC Strip Product Group
Callow & Maddox Bros Ltd
Car Bench
Car-O-Liner UK Ltd
Celette UK Ltd
Cengar Universal Tool Company Ltd
Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co. Ltd
Chief Automotive Ltd
Chubb Fire Ltd
Citroen UK Ltd
Dana Distribution Ltd, Martyn Ferguson
Dataliner, Geotronics Ltd
Department for Transport
Department of Transport (USA)
Desoutter Automotive Ltd
DeVilbiss Automotive Refinishing Products
Dinol-Protectol Ltd
Dr Ahmed
Dr Barnard
Dr Ramnefors
DRG Kwikseal Products
Du Pont (UK) Ltd
Duramix
Dunlop Adhesives
East Coast Traders
Edwards Pearson Ltd
EEVC
xxAcknowledgements
ESAB Ltd
European Industrial Services
EuroNCAP
Express Garage
Facom Tools Ltd
Farécla Products Ltd
Farnborough College of Technology
Fifth Generation Technology Ltd
Fire Extinguishing Trades Association
Ford Motor Company Ltd
Forest Fasteners
Frost Auto Restoration Techniques Ltd
Fry’s Metals Ltd
George Marshall (Power Tools) Ltd
GE Plastics Ltd
GKN Screws and Fasteners Ltd
Glass’s Guide Service Ltd
Glasurit Automotive Refinish
Glas-Weld Systems (UK) Ltd
Go-Jo Industries Europe Ltd
Gramos Chemicals International Ltd
Gray Campling Ltd
Harboran Ltd
Herberts
Hooper & Co. (Coachbuilders) Ltd
Huck UK Ltd
Ian Williamson – IHMS Ltd
IBCAM Journal
ICI Autocolor
ICI Chemicals and Polymers Group
ICI Paints
Industrial and Trade Fairs Ltd
Institute of the Motor Industry
Institution of Engineering Designers
Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Jack Sealey Ltd
Jaguar Cars Ltd
James Holyfield – Automotive Skills
John Cotton (Colne) Ltd
Kärcher
Kenmore Computing Services Ltd
Kroll (UK) Ltd
Land Rover Ltd
Lotus Engineering
McLaren Cars
McLaren Racing
Mercedes Benz
Mick Ellender
Migatronic Welding Equipment Ltd
Mig Tig Arc Online
Minden Industrial Ltd
Morgan Motor Company Ltd
Motor Insurance Repair Centre (Thatcham)
Motorspart Industry Association
Murex Welding Products Ltd
3M Automotive Trades
National Adhesives & Resins Ltd
Nederman Ltd
Neill Tools Ltd
Nettlefolds Ltd
North West Kent College
Olympus Welding & Cutting Technology Ltd
Owens-Corning Fiberglas (GB) Ltd
Oxford Brookes University
Partco Engineering
Permabond
Performance Racing Industry (USA)
Pickles Godfrey Design Partnership, Ernest W.
Godfrey
Plastics and Rubber Institute
Power-Tec Body Shop Solutions
Proton
Racal Safety Ltd
Rachel Margetts – Graphic Designs
Rally Speed
Rebecca Maturin – AVC
Reliant Motors Ltd
Renault UK Ltd
Rolls-Royce Motor Car Ltd
Rover Cars
Saab-Scania
Schlegel (UK) Ltd
Scott Bader Co. Ltd
Selson Machine Tool Co. Ltd
SIP (Industrial Products) Ltd
SL Kars
Spraybake Ltd
SPSystems
Standard Forms Ltd
Stanners Ltd
Strode College, Street
Sun Electric UK Ltd
Sykes-Pickavant Ltd
Teroson UK
The Institute of Materials
The Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre
The National Motor Museum
Thornley and Knight Ltd
THATCHAM
Triplex Safety Glass
Acknowledgements xxi
Tri-Sphere Ltd
TRW United-Car Ltd
Tucker Fasteners Ltd
UK Fire International Ltd
United Continental Steels Ltd
USLB – AVC
Vauxhall Motors Ltd
VCA
Vehicle Builders and Repaires Association
Vitamol Ltd
Vines Guildford (BMW and MINI)
Volkswagen-Audi
Volvo Concessionaires Ltd
VOSA
W. David and Sons Limited
Welding & Metal Fabrication
Welwyn Tool Co. Ltd
Wheelforce V. L. Churchill
Wholesale Welding Supplies Ltd
A. Robinson
(List updated by W. A. Livesey)
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
Glossary
AbrasiveA substance used for wearing away a surface by rubbing.
AccelerationAcceleration is the rate of change of speed.
AcceleratorA constituent of synthetic resin mix which hastens a reaction.
AccessoriesOptional extras not essential to the running of a vehicle, e.g. radio, heater.
AcetoneA liquid hydrocarbon capable of dissolving twenty-five times its own volume of acetylene gas
at atmospheric pressure.
AcetyleneA combustible gas which is mixed with oxygen and used in oxy-acetylene welding.
AdhesionThe ability to adhere to a surface.
AdhesiveA substance that allows two surfaces to adhere together.
AdjustmentsNecessary alterations to improve tolerances in fit.
Air bagsA passive safety restraint system that inflates automatically on vehicle impact to protect the
driver.
AlignmentThe operation of bringing into line two or more specified points on a vehicle structure.
All-metal constructionGenerally this applies to those body shells of both private cars and light
commercial vehicles in which the construction is in the form of steel pressings assembled by
welding, thus forming a fabricated unit.
AlloyA mixture of two or more metals with, or without, other metallic or non-metallic elements.
A-postA structural pillar on which the front door is hung.
BackfireIn gas welding, a momentary return of gases indicated in the blowpipe by a pop or loud bang,
the flame immediately recovering and burning normally at the blowpipe.
Backhand weldingSometimes classified as ‘rightward welding’. A technique in which the flame is
directed backwards against the completed part of the weld.
Back lightA central window in the rear panel of the driving cab, or the rear window of a saloon body.
BC-postCentral pillar acting as a central roof and side support between the rear and the front of the
car.
Bevel angleThe angle of a prepared edge creating a bevel prior to welding.
BilletAn oblong piece of metal having a square section.
BinderA resin or cementing constituent of a compound.
BlowpipeA tool used for welding, known as a welding torch.
BodyThe structured part of a vehicle which encompasses the passenger, engine and luggage compartments.
Body hardwareFunctional accessories of vehicle body, e.g. door handles.
Body lock pillarA body pillar that incorporates a lock striker plate.
Body mountingConventional body mounted on car chassis in composite method of body construction.
Body panelsPressed metal panels, or plastic moulded composite panels, which are fastened together to
form the skin of a car body.
Body side mouldingThe exterior trim moulding fastened to the exterior of the body in a horizontal
position.
Body sillThe panel directly below the bottom of the doors.
Body spoonA body repairer’s hand tool.
Body trimThe materials which are used in the interior of the body for lining and upholstery.
BonnetThe metal cover over the engine compartment.
BootA compartment provided in a car body which takes the luggage and often the spare wheel and
fuel tank. It may be at the front or rear of the body depending upon the location of the engine.
Boot lidDoor covering luggage compartment.
xxivGlossary
Bottom sideThe frame member of the base of the body extending along the full of the main portion of
the body.
BrazingA non-fusion process in which the filler metal has a lower melting point than the parent
metal(s).
BucklesThe resulting distortion of body panels after collision.
BulkheadA transverse support in a body structure.
BumpingReshaping metal with a hammer and dolly.
BurrThe resulting condition left on a metal edge after cutting or filing.
Bursting discA type of pressure relief device which consists of a disc, usually of metal, which is so
held that it confines the pressure of the cylinder under normal conditions. The disc is intended to rupture
between limits of over-pressure due to abnormal conditions, particularly when the cylinder is
exposed to fire.
Butt jointA welded joint in which the ends or edges of two pieces of metal directly face each other.
CalibrateTo check irregularities in measuring instruments.
Cant panelThe curved section of the roof top running between the comparatively flat top and the rain
drip or gutter.
CantrailThe longitudinal framing of the roof at the joint.
Carbon dioxideA heavy colourless and incombustible gas which results from the perfect combustion
of carbon.
Carbon fibreAn extremely strong, though expensive, reinforcement which can be used in conjunction
with fibreglass. It gives increased rigidity to the laminate.
Carbonizing flameAn oxy-acetylene flame adjustment created by an excess of acetylene over oxygen,
resulting in an excess of carbon in the flame.
Case hardeningThis is the process of hardening the outer case or shell articles, which is accomplished
by inducing additional carbon into the case of the steel by a variety of methods.
CatalystA chemical substance which brings about a chemical change to produce a different substance.
Catalyst dispenserA purpose-designed container for measuring and dispensing liquid catalyst without
splashing.
Centre pillarThe centre vertical support of a four-door saloon.
ChassisThe base frame of a motor vehicle of composite construction to which the body is attached.
Check valueA safety device that controls the passage of gas or air in one direction, in order to prevent
the reversal of gas flow and a consequent accident.
Chemical reactionThe resulting change when two or more chemical substances are mixed.
Chopped strand matChopped strands bonded into a mat to produce a popular economical generalpurpose
reinforcement.
Chopped strandsAs the name suggests, glass fibre strands chopped into short (about 12 mm) lengths.
They can be used as fillers. Useful for bodywork repairs.
CircuitThe path along which electricity flows. When the path is continuous, the circuit is closed and
the current flows. When the path is broken, the circuit is open and no current flows.
Cold curingGeneric term for materials which harden at room temperatures, after the addition of
catalyst.
Collapsible steering columnA safety feature in the form of an energy-absorbing steering column
designed to collapse on impact.
Compartment shelf panelThe horizontal panel situated between the rear seat back and the back window.
Compression ratio (CR) This is the ratio between the volume of the gas above the piston when it is at
BDC compared to that at TDC.
Compressive strengthThe ability of a material to withstand being crushed. It is found by testing a
sample to failure: the load applied, divided by the cross section of the sample, gives the compressive
strength.
Glossary xxv
CondensationA change of state from a gas to a liquid caused by temperature or pressure changes. It
may also be formed by moisture from the air being deposited on a cool surface.
ConductorAny material or substance that allows current or heat to flow through it.
Copper acetylideA spontaneously explosive and inflammable substance which forms when acetylene
is passed through a copper tube.
CorrosionThe wearing away or gradual destruction of a substance, e.g. rusting of metal.
CuringThe change of a binder from soluble fusible state to insoluble infusible state by chemical
action.
Curing timeThe time needed for liquid resin to reach a solid state after the catalyst has been added.
Cutting tipA torch especially adapted for cutting.
CylinderSteel containers used for storage of compressed gases.
Dash panelA panel attached to the front bulkhead assembly and which provides a mounting for all
instruments necessary to check the performance of the vehicle.
Deposited metalFiller metal from a welding rod or electrode which has been melted by a welding
process and applied in the form of a joint or built up.
DiagnosisThe determination, by examination, of the cause of a problem.
DingingStraightening damaged metal with spoons, hammers or dollies. In the early days the dingman
was the tradesman who worked on completed bodies to remove minor imperfections without injury to
the high gloss lacquer or varnish.
Dinging hammerA special hammer used for dinging or removal of dents.
Direct damagePrimary damage which results from an impact on the area in actual contact with the
object causing the damage.
Dolly blockA hand tool, made from special steel, shaped to suit the contour of various panel assemblies
and used in conjunction with a planishing hammer to smooth out damaged panel surfaces.
Door skinsOutside door panels.
Door trimThe interior lining of a door.
D-postThe rear standing pillar providing a shut face for the rear door and forming the rear quarter
panel area.
Drip mouldingA roof trough to direct water from door openings.
ElectrodeThe usual term for the filler rod which is deposited when using the electric arc welding
process.
ElectrolyteA substance which dissolves in water to give a solution capable of conducting an electric
current.
EpoxyBased on an epoxy resin which is mixed with a hardener.
EvaporationA change of state from solid or liquid into vapour.
ExpansionThe increase in the dimensions of metals due to heat.
ExtrudeTo draw into lengths.
FenderAmerican term for wing.
FillerInorganic types used to extend low-pressure resins, usually polyesters.
Filler metalMetal added to a weld in the form of a rod, electrode or coil.
Fillet weldA weld in which two surfaces at right angles to one another are welded together.
FirewallPanel dividing engine compartment from interior of body.
FlangeA reinforcement on the edge of a panel formed at approximately right angles to the panel.
FlashbackOccurs when the flame disappears from the end of the welding tip and the gases burn in the
torch.
FlatA panel is said to be flat when insufficient shaping has caused uneven contours and so flat areas
are obvious.
Floor panMain floor of the passenger compartment of an underbody assembly.
FluxA chemical material or gas used to dissolve and prevent the formation of surface oxides when soldering,
brazing or welding.
xxviGlossary
Foams (flexible)A resin which is often used for cushioning in the automobile industries. These foams
are usually urethanes.
Foams (rigid)A resin with a higher modulus than the flexible foams. These are also normally urethanes
and are used in more structural applications such as cores in sandwich constructions.
ForceMass is to do with the number of atoms or molecules in a material.
Four-doorDenotes the type of saloon body having four doors.
Frame gaugesSelf-centring alignment gauges which are hung from a car’s underbody.
FrictionPressing the brake pads against the discs causes friction which converts the dynamic energy of
the moving vehicle into heat energy.
FrictionThe resistance to motion that a body meets when moving over another.
Fusion weldingA process in which metals are welded together by bringing them to the molten state at
the surface to be joined, with or without the addition of filler metal, and without the application of
mechanical pressure or blows.
Gas weldingA fusion welding process which uses a gas flame to provide the welding heat.
GelResin takes on a gel-like consistency (gels) usually within 10–15 minutes of being catalyzed. At
this point it is impossible to spray, paint or pour. Stored resin which has passed its shelf life may gel
without being catalyzed.
GelcoatA thixotropic resin normally used without reinforcement and applied first to the mould. It
forms the smooth shiny surface of the finished article.
Glass fibreGlass filaments drawn together into fibres and treated for use as reinforcement.
HardenerA chemical curing or hardening agent.
HardeningHeating to a critical temperature followed by a relatively rapid rate of cooling.
HeadliningThe cloth or other material used to cover the inner surface of the car roof.
Heat and temperatureTemperature is the hotness or coldness of a body measured in degrees centigrade
(C, also called Celsius) or absolute temperature in Kelvin (K). Heat is energy measured in joules (J).
HeelboardThe vertical board or panel under the rear seat which forms the support for the seat cushion.
Hinge pillarA pillar on which a door is swung.
HoodAmerican term for bonnet.
Hydraulic pressurePressure transmitted by a liquid.
HydraulicsThe use of pressurized liquid to transfer force.
ImpregnatedThe particles of one substance infused into that of another.
Independent front suspensionSuspension system in which each wheel is independently supported by
a spring.
Indirect damageSecondary damage found in the area surrounding the damage which caused it.
InertiaInertia is the resistance of a body to stop doing whatever it is doing.
InertiaProperty of an object by which it continues in its existing state of rest or motion in a straight
line, unless that state is changed by an external force.
InsulationA material which is non-conductive of either heat or electricity.
IntegralA necessary part to complete a whole unit.
InterchangeabilityThe ability to substitute one part for another.
Kerb weightThe weight of an empty vehicle without passengers and luggage.
KevlarA synthetic aramid fibre used as a reinforcement for resins. It is noted for its high impact resistance
and is used in racing car bodywork.
Kinetic energyThe energy of motion.
LaminatesA material composed of a number of layers.
Lap jointA form of joint obtained by overlapping the edges of two pieces of metal. The overlapping
parts must be in the sample plane.
LatexA natural rubber used for making flexible moulds. It is a liquid which solidifies in contact with
air.
Lay-upLayers of glass fibres are laid on top of wet resin and then pressed down into the liquid resin.
Glossary xxvii
Leftward weldingThis is known as forehand welding.
LeversLevers are used to increase the force exerted by pivoting about a point.
Mass productionLarge-scale, high-speed manufacture.
Metal fatigueA metal structural failure, resulting from excessive or repeated stress, finally resulting in
a crack.
MoleculeA minute particle into which a substance can be divided and retain its properties.
MonomerA simple molecule capable of combining with itself, or a compatible similar chemical, to
form a chain (polymer).
MouldingThe resulting shape of a plastics material when it is removed from its mould.
Mould releaseA substance used to coat the mould to prevent sticking of the resin that will be used to
make a part. It facilitates the removal of that part from the mould.
Near sideThe left-hand side of the vehicle as viewed from the driver’s seat.
Neutral flameA balanced flame, indicating perfect combustion of both oxygen and acetylene gases.
Non-ferrous metalsMetals which do not contain any ferrite or iron.
NormalizingHeating to a high temperature to produce a refinement of the grain structure of a metal or
alloy.
Off sideThe right-hand side of a vehicle as viewed from the driver’s seat.
Original finishThe paint applied at the factory by the vehicle manufacturer.
OxidationChemical reaction between oxygen and some other element resulting in oxides.
Oxidizing flameA gas welding flame which has an excess of oxygen when burning.
PaddleA wooden tool shaped for spreading body solder.
Parent metalThe material of a part to be welded.
Pascal’s lawPascal discovered that the pressure in a body is equal in all directions.
PenetrationDepth of fusion or weld penetration.
PickleTo soak metal in an acid solution in order to free the surface of rust or scale.
PillarA vertical support of a body frame.
Pillar faceThe front of a pillar visible when the door is opened.
Pinch weldTwo metal flanges butted together and spot welded along the join of the flat surfaces.
PolyurethaneA versatile material used for adhesives, paints, varnishes, resins and foam materials.
These are often used ion conjunction with polyester-based GRP.
PorosityThe presence of gas pockets or inclusions within a weld.
PowerPower is usually expressed in horse power (HP), that is, the number of horses which would be
needed to do the equivalent amount of work in the same time.
PressureThe amount force per unit area
PrototypeAn original model.
PuddleThe small body of molten metal created by the flame of a welding torch.
Quarter lightThe window directly above the quarter panel.
Quarter panelThe side panel extending from the door to the rear end of the body (including rear
wing).
ReinforcementFiller material added to plastics (resin) in order to strengthen the finished product.
Relative density (RD)Relative density is the relationship which other materials have with this.
ResinResins occur in nature as organic compounds, insoluble in water, e.g. amber, shellac. Synthetic
resins have similar properties and are normally converted to solids by ploymerization.
Return sweepA reverse curve.
SaloonAn enclosed body not having a partition between the front and rear seats.
Scuttle panelThe panel between the bonnet and windscreen.
Self-tapping screwA screw that cuts its own threads into a predrilled hole.
Silicone rubbersUsed, amongst other applications, for sealants and flexible mould compounds. They
are usually cold curing.
SolventA chemical fluid which will dissolve, dilute or liquefy another material.
xxviiiGlossary
SpecificationsInformation provided by the manufacturer on vehicle data in the form of dimensions.
SquabThe rear seat back construction.
Stream liningThe shaping of a vehicle body to minimize air resistance.
SubframeMembers to which the engine and front-end assembly are attached.
SwageA raised form of moulding pressed into a piece of metal in order to stiffen it.
Swage lineA design line on a vehicle body, caused by a crease or step in a panel.
SweatingUniting two or more metal surfaces by the use of heat and soft solder.
SyntheticA substance produced artificially.
TemperatureThe measurement, in degrees, of the intensity of heat.
TemplateA form or pattern made so that other parts can be formed to exactly the same shape.
Tensile strengthThe resistance to breaking which metal offers when subject to a pulling stress.
ThermoplasticPlastic which can be softened by heating, and which still retains its properties after it
has been cooled and hardened. Typical thermoplastics are polythene and PVC.
ThermosettingPlastic which hardens by non-reversible chemical reaction, initiated by heat and/or curing
agents. Once hardened, it cannot be melted down without being destroyed.
ThixotropicGenerally used to describe substances which have a very high viscosity when stable, but
low viscosity when stirred or brushed. ‘Non-drip’ paint is an obvious example; another is gelcoat resin.
TorqueTorque is the turning moment about a point expressed in newton-metres (Nm).
TunnelA raised floor panel section for drivershaft clearance.
TurretAmerican term for roof.
Weld beadOne single run of an electrode welding rod in manual metal arc welding.
Weld depositMetal which has been added to a joint by one of the welding processes.
Wheel alignmentThe adjustment of a vehicle’s wheels so that they are positioned to drive correctly.
Wheel archPanel forming inner housing for rear wheels.
WheelbaseThe distance between the centre lines of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle.
Abbreviations and
symbols
ABS acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
ABS anti-lock braking system
AF across flats (bolt size)
Cd aerodynamic drag coefficient
AC alternating current
A ampere
AFFF aqueous film forming foam (fire fighting)
bar 106 dyn/cm2; 105 N/m2; 0.98682 atm; 14.505 psi
BATNEEC best available techniques not enabling excessive costs
BS British Standard
BSI British Standards Institution
BCF bromochlorodifluoromethane (fire extinguishers)
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
C Centigrade (Celsius)
cm centimetre
CAD computer-aided design
CAE computer-aided engineering
CAM computer-aided manufacturing
CIM computer-integrated manufacturing
COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (Regulations)
cm3 cubic centimetres
in3 cubic inches
deg. or º degree (angle or temperature)
DTI dial test indicator
dia. diameter
DC direct current
dB decibel
ECU Electronic control unit
EPA Environmental Protection Act
EC European Community
F Fahrenheit
ft foot
ft/min feet per minute
xxxAbbreviations and symbols
gal gallon (imperial)
GLS general lighting service (lamp)
GRP glass fibre reinforced plastic
g gram (mass)
HASAWA Health and Safety at Work Act
HSE Health and Safety Executive
HT high tension (electrical)
HVLP high velocity low pressure (spray guns)
in inch
IFS independent front suspension
IR infrared
ID internal diameter
IED Institution of Engineering Designers
IMI Institute of the Motor Industry
ISO International Organization for Standardization
kg Kilogram (mass)
kW kilowatt
LH left-hand
LHD left-hand drive
LHThd left-hand thread
l litre
LT Low tension
lumen light energy radiated per second per unit solid angle by a uniform point source of l candela
intensity
lux unit of illumination equal to l lumen/m2
max. maximum
MAG metal active gas (welding)
MIG metal inert gas (welding)
m metre
mm millimetre
min. minimum
_ minus (of tolerance)
_ minute (of angle)
(_) negative (electrical)
Nm newton metre
dB(A) noise level at the ear
Lep,d noise exposure level, personal (daily)
Lep,w noise exposure level, personal (weekly)
no. Number
ozf ounce (force)
oz ounce (mass)
OD outside diameter
Abbreviations and symbols xxxi
part no. part number
% percentage
PPE Personal Protection Equipment (Regulations)
pt pint (imperial)
_ plus (tolerance)
_ plus or minus
PVA polyvinyl acetate
PVC polyvinyl chloride
_ positive (electrical)
lbf pound force
lb pound (mass)
lbf ft pound force foot (torque)
lbf/in2 pound force per square inch
r radius
ref. reference
rev/min revolutions per minute
RH right-hand
RHD right-hand drive
_ second (angle)
SAE Society of Automobile Engineers
cm2 square centimetres
in2 square inches
std standard
TIG tungsten inert gas (welding)
VIN vehicle identification number
VOCs volatile organic compounds
V volt
This Page is Intentionally Left Blank
The history,
development and
construction of the
car body
1.1 Development of the motor car body
Brief history
The first motor car bodies and chassis frames, made
between 1896 and 1910, were similar in design to
horse-drawn carriages and, like the carriages, were
made almost entirely of wood.
The frames were generally made from heavy ash,
and the joints were reinforced by wrought iron brackets
which were individually fitted. The panels were
either cedar or Honduras mahogany about 9.5 mm
thick, glued, pinned or screwed to the framework.
The tops, on cars which had them, were of rubberized
canvas or other fabrics. Some bodies were built
with closed cabs, and the tops were held in place by
strips of wood bent to form a solid frame. About
1921 the Weymann construction was introduced, in
which the floor structure carried all the weight of the
seating, and the body shell, which was of very light
construction, was attached to the floor unit. Each
joint in the shell and between the shell and the floor
was made by a pair of steel plates, one on each side
of the joint and bolted through both pieces of timber,
leaving a slight gap between the two pieces. The
panelling was of fabric, first canvas, then a layer of
wadding calico and finally a covering of leather
cloth. This form of construction allowed flexibility in
the framing and made a very light and quiet body
frame, but the outer covering had a very short life.
As the demand for vehicles increased it became
necessary to find a quicker method of production.
Up to that time steel had been shaped by hand, but
it was known that metal in large sheets could
be shaped using simple die tools in presses, and
machine presses were introduced to the steel industry
to form steel sheets into body panels. Initially the
sheets were not formed into complex shapes or
contours, and the first bodies were very square and
angular with few curves. The frame and inner construction
was still for the most part made of wood,
as shown in Figure 1.1. About 1923 the first
attempts were made to build all-steel bodies, but
these were not satisfactory as the design principles
used were similar to those which had been adopted
for the timber-framed body. The real beginning of
the all-steel body shell came in 1927, when presses
became capable of producing a greater number of
panels and in more complex shapes; this was the
dawn of the mass production era. During the 1930s
most of the large companies who manufactured
motor vehicles adopted the use of metal for the
complete construction of the body shell, and motor
cars began to be produced in even greater quantities.
Owing to the ever-increasing demand for private
transport, competition increased between rival
firms, and in consequence their body engineers
began to incorporate features which added to the
comfort of the driver and passenger. This brought
about the development of the closed cars or
saloons as we know them today. The gradual
development of the shape of the motor car body
can be clearly seen in Figure 1.2, which shows a
2Repair of Vehicle Bodies
selection of Austin vehicles from 1909 to 1992.
That is, from Edwardian to modern times.
The inner construction of the head roof of these
saloons was concealed by a headlining. Up to and
including the immediate post-war years, this headlining
was made from a woollen fabric stitched
together and tacked into position on wooden
frames. However, the more recently developed
plastic and vinyl materials were found to be more
suitable than fabric, being cheaper and easier to
clean and fit. They are fitted by stretching over
self-tensioning frames which are clipped into position
for easy removal, or alternatively the headlining
is fastened into position with adhesives.
Comfort improved tremendously with the use of
latex foam rubber together with coil springs in the
seating, instead of the original plain springing. The
general interior finish has also been improved by
the introduction of door trim pads, fully trimmed
dash panels and a floor covering of either removable
rubber or carpeting.
Then came the general use of celluloid for windows
instead of side curtains, and next a raising
and lowering mechanism for the windows.
Nowadays the windscreen and door glasses are
made of laminated and/or toughened safety glass.
The window mechanism in use today did not
begin to develop until well into the 1920s.
Mudguards, which began as wooden or leather
protections against splattered mud, grew into wide
splayed deflectors in the early part of the twentieth
century and then gradually receded into the body
work, becoming gracefully moulded into the
streamlining of the modern motor car and taking
the name of wings. Carriage steps retained on earlier
models gave place to running boards which in
their turn disappeared altogether.
Steering between 1890 and 1906 was operated
by a tiller (Figure 1.3). This was followed by the
steering wheel which is in current use. The position
of the gear lever made an early change from
the floor to the steering column, only to return to
some convenient place on the floor.
Some of the first vehicles, or horseless carriages
as they were known, carried no lights at all; then
carriage candle lamps made their appearance. Later
came oil lamps, acetylene lamps and finally the
electric lighting system, first fitted as a luxury
extra and ultimately becoming standard and finally
obligatory equipment which must conform with
legislation of the day.
When windscreens were first introduced such
accessories as windscreen wipers and washers were
unknown. Then came the single hand-operated
wiper, followed by the suction wiper and finally
electrically driven wipers.
The design of the wheels was at first dictated by
fashion. It was considered necessary for the rear
wheels to be larger than the front, a legacy from the
elegant horse-drawn carriages. Wooden spokes and
iron tyres were the first wheels to appear, and with
both rear and front wheels of the same dimensions.
Then came the wooden-spoked artillery wheel with
pneumatic tyre (Figure 1.4). The artillery wheel
gave way to the wire-spoked wheel, and this in
turn to the modern disc wheel with tubeless tyres.
Great strides have been made in the evolution
of the motor car since 1770, when Cugnot’s steam
wagon travelled at 3 mile/h (4.8 km/h), to the modern
Figure 1.1Timber constructed bodies: (a) De Dion
Works body shop, Finchley, c. 1923 (b) Gordon
England Ltd, 1922 (National Motor Museum, Beaulieu)
The history, development and construction of the car body 3
1909 The first Baby Austin
1922 Austin Tourer
1932 Austin Saloon
1946 Austin 16
Figure 1.2Development of the Austin car body 1909 to 1992, from Edwardian to modern construction methods
4Repair of Vehicle Bodies
1948 Austin A–70
1952 Austin Seven
1959 Austin Princess
1960 Austin Mini
Figure 1.2(continued)
The history, development and construction of the car body 5
1963 Austin 1100
1964 Austin 1800
1973 Austin Allegro
1970 Austin Maxi 1800
Figure 1.2(continued)
6Repair of Vehicle Bodies
1975 Austin Princess
1976 Austin Rover SDI
1980 Austin Metro
1983 Austin Maestro
Figure 1.2(continued)
The history, development and construction of the car body 7
1984 Austin Montego
1987 Austin Rover Sterling
1986 Austin Rover 200
1988 Rover 820 Fastback
1989 Mini Flame
Figure 1.2(continued)
8Repair of Vehicle Bodies
vehicle which can carry driver and passengers in
silence, comfort and safety at speeds which at one
time were thought to be beyond human endurance;
indeed, special vehicles on prepared tracks are now
approaching the speed of sound.
It must be borne in mind that the speed of the vehicle
is governed by (a) the type of power unit, (b) its
stability and manoeuvring capabilities and (c) its
shape, which is perhaps at present one of the most
important features in high-speed travel. Whatever the
mechanical future of the car, we may rest assured
that the shape of the motor car body will continue to
change as technical progress is made (Figure 1.5).