THE ENGINEERING PROFESSION
Engineering is one of the most ancient occupations in history. Without the skills included in the broad field of engineering, our present-day civilization never could have evolved. The first toolmakers who chipped arrows and spears from rock were the forerunners of modern mechanical engineers. The craftsmen who discovered metals in the earth and found ways to refine and use them were the ancestors of mining and metallurgical engineers. And the skilled technicians who devised irrigation systems and erected the marvellous buildings of the ancient world were the civil engineers of their time.
Engineering is often defined as making practical application of theoretical sciences such as physics and mathematics. Many of the early branches of engineering were based not on science but on empirical information that depended on observation and experience.
The great engineering works of ancient times were constructed and operated largely by means of slave labor. During the Middle Ages people
began to seek devices and methods of work that were more efficient and humane. Wind, water, and animals were used to provide energy for some of these new devices. This led to the Industrial Revolution that began in the eighteenth century. First steam engines and then other kinds of machines took over more and more of the work that had previously been done by human beings or by animals. James Watt, one of the key figures in the early development of steam engines, devised the concept of horsepower to make his customers understand the amount of work his machines could perform.
Since the nineteenth century both scientific research and practical application of its results have escalated. The mechanical engineer now has the mathematical ability to calculate the mechanical advantage that results from the complex interaction of many different mechanisms. He or she also has new and stronger materials to work with and enormous new sources of power. The Industrial Revolution began by putting water and steam to work; since then machines using electricity, gasoline, and other energy sources have become so widespread that they now do a very large proportion of the work of the world.
VII. Language
Exercise 12. Translate the following words and word combinations into Ukrainian :
Ancient occupation
The skills
To evolve
The first toolmakers
The forerunner
To refine
Irrigation system
The marvelous buildings
Practical application
Observation
Slave labor
The steam engine
The key figure
The mechanical advantage
Exercise 13. Complete the sentences. Find the ending of the sentences in the right column:
| 1. Engineering … . 2. It is based on … . 3. In ancient times engineering work was done … . 4. In the Middle Ages the methods and devices of work … . 5. In the 18th century … . 6. Steam gave man … . 7. Since the 19th century both scientific research and its practical application … . 8. In thr 20th century the mechanical engineer had … . 9. the engineer has new and … . | a) many new sources of power such as electricity, gasoline, atomic power, etc. b) the Industrial Revolution began. c) One of the most ancient occupations in history. d) And much stronger materials to work with. e) By means of slave labor. f) Became more efficient. g) Theoretical sciences such as physics and mathematics. h) Great sources of energy. i) Have greatly progress. |
Exercise 14. Fill in the table. Use the information from the text B:
| Engineering specialty | Its forerunner | Its function |
| Mechanical engineer | Toolmakers who chipped arrows and spears from rock | To make tools and machinery |
| Mining engineer | ||
| Civil engineer | ||
| Metallurgical engineer |
Exercise 15. Answer the questions:
1. Who were the forerunners of modern mechanical, mining and metallurgical, and civil engineers?
2. How is engineering often defined?
3. What kind of information were many of early branches of engineering based on? Give some examples.
4. Name two important factors in the explosion of scientific knowledge in modern times.
5. What made people in the Middle Ages in Europe begin to experiment with new devices and methods of work?
6. What was the historical result of experimentation with different kinds of energy?
7. Who was James Watt? Why did he devise the concept of horsepower?
8. What advantages have scientific research and its applications given to the mechanical engineer?
9. What energy sources have come into common use since steam engines were developed at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution?
VIII. Oral Practice.
Exercise 16. Explain :
a) what engineering professions are said about in the first passage;
b) what devices and machines are reported in the third passage;
c) what for the 19th century is mentioned in the last passage.
Exercise 17. Give information about the development of engineering profession using the table :
| The field of application | Nouns and noun combinations | Verbs | Adjectives |
| 1. Specialists in different fields of techniques | Toolmaker Craftsman Mining engineer Metallurgical engineer Civil engineer | Efficient human | |
| 2. Machines and devices | Steam engine Device arrow | To erect To escalate To refine | |
| 3. Methods of investigations using for device calculations and subjects connected with them | Empirical information Observation Experience Mechanical advantage Horsepower Physics mathematics | ||
| 4. Engineers activity in different branches | To discover To perform To provide To calculate To depend upon |
IX. Reading
Exercise. 18. Read the text C and choose the title to it :
Development of Engineering
Science and Engineering
Engineering Specialties
Text C
One result of the rapid expansion of scientific knowledge was an increase in the number of engineering specialties. By the end of the nineteenth century not only were mechanical, civil, and mining and metallurgical engineering established but the newer specialties of chemical and electrical engineering also emerged. This growth in the number of specialties is continuing with the establishment of such disciplines as aerospace, nuclear, petroleum, and electronic engineering. Many of these are subdivisions of earlier specialties — for example, electronic from
electrical engineering or petroleum from chemical. Within the field of mechanical engineering the major subdivision is industrial engineering which is concerned with complete mechanical systems for industry rather than individual machines.
Engineers design and make machines, equipment and the like. Such work requires creative ability and a working knowledge of scientific principles. The engineer must also have an understanding of the various processes and materials available to him/her and could be working in any of the following areas: the organization of manufacture, research and development, design, construction, sales and education.
Because of the large number of engineering fields today there are often many different kinds of engineers working on large projects such as the development of nuclear power or new aircraft. In the design of a new aircraft mechanical engineers work not only on the plane's engines but on other mechanical aspects such as the braking system. When the aircraft goes into production mechanical and industrial engineers are involved in designing the machines necessary to fabricate the different parts as well as the entire system for assembling them. In both phases of such a project mechanical engineers work with specialists in fields such as aerospace and electronic engineering. Each engineer is a member of a team often headed by a systems engineer able to combine the contributions made by all the different disciplines.
Another result of the increase of scientific knowledge is that engineering has become a profession. A profession is an occupation like law or medicine that requires specialized advanced education. Today it requires at least four or five years of university study leading to a Bachelor of Science degree. More and more often engineers, especially those engaged in research, get an advanced master’s or doctor’s degree. Even those engineers who do not study for advanced degrees must keep up with changes in their profession. A mechanical engineer who does not know about new materials cannot successfully complete with one who does.
Exercise 19. Read the text D and say what problems are mentioned in the text:
EDUCATING TOMORROW’S ENGINEERS
Engineering education developed very differently on the Continent and in the UK. On the Continent, engineering and technical sciences were set up in technical universities, while in the UK engineering departments were set up in multi-discipline universities. As a consequence, engineering education developed on the Continent as a more professionally oriented subject, while in the UK the emphasis was on engineering science. Perhaps because of their size and their more professional engineering-oriented courses the Continental technical universities have developed a much closer relationship with industry. In Germany, the Herr Professor is also likely to be a Herr Director and there are many visiting industrial professors, who will spend a day a week in the University. In France much of the lecturing is provided by staff from the appropriate industries. There is nothing similar in UK engineering departments.
The question is what is to be done about engineering education in the UK? In the opinion of Britain's specialists, 70 to 80 engineering faculties in English universities and polytechnics should be condensed down into 20 or so major technical universities. They should become more industrially-oriented.
Lastly, the objective of engineering education and training should be recognized. So what should be the objective of undergraduate education? It is to educate and train people to think and search out knowledge for themselves, and to have the self-assurance to apply it to the job in hand. Many of the courses are now much too intensive and students have too little time or encouragement, to read and think for themselves. The solution is to recognize that it is impossible to cover all the subjects which an engineer may find useful in a lifetime, and realize that if he has been correctly educated he can read up on subjects which he may need as he
progresses in his career.
However, industry must recognize that a graduate will need training in the specific area in which he is working, and must also be prepared to encourage him to attend continuing education courses and/or seminars and conferences as appropriate. It is clear that there is to be much more interchange of staff between industry and higher education.
The education and training of engineers must be a partnership between industry and higher education, which extends from undergraduate education and training through to post-graduate short and long courses and research.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Read the texts and translate them in writing. Use a dictionary.
Text E
Mechanical Engineers.
The engineer typifies the twentieth century. He is making a vast contribution in design, engineering and promotion. In the organization and direction of large-scale enterprises we need his analytical frame of mind. We need his imagination.
He is either designing the product itself or inventing new products or testing the product, its components, and the materials in it; or analyzing its performance and making a mathematical analysis.
He may be engaged in the development of the new product, making drawings and specifications.
He may be concerning himself with the development of a new production process, or the adaptation of a current process to a new product.
He may be utilizing his engineering know-how in determining the best processes and equipment for the mass production of high-quality products.
He may be the project engineer in charge of the design and installation of a highly automatic conveyer system for handling different kinds of pans between various assembly stations.
He may be working on designing and developing tools, dies, jigs, assembly fixtures and welding fixtures for the production of an automotive body.
In the 20th century, the engineer had at his command many new sources of power. He worked hard to develop better materials, especially new alloys for special purposes. He wanted to make machinery automatic.
Text F
Simulation versus calculation
Calculation is the common method to analyze production rates. An idealized model of the plant, consisting of a number of its individual components, is first created. In the rolling mill, these components are the furnace, rolling stands, cooling bed, etc. Following the creation of the model, the production rate of each individual component is calculated for each product. The component with the lowest throughput becomes the bottleneck and determines the throughput of the entire mill by product.
Simulation, in comparison, attempts to reflect the exact behavior of the mill for any given scenario. A model is created that contains all of the equipment and processes in the mill. Modeling and implementation of the logic and rules are the tasks to be performed in this approach.
Simulation is replacing calculation for the analysis of minimill production and operations for many reasons including:
Limitations of calculation approach - The drawback of this method is that the mill components are considered independently, and an idealized model does not represent all of the important details and interactions of the real mill.
Reliability of results - simulation results are more reliable than calculation results due to logical approach of the method. Simulation results have greater accuracy and therefore are economically more efficient.
Text G
Physical Metallurgists
Physical metallurgists are responsible for developing new aluminium alloys that reduce weight and improve the fuel efficiency of aircraft, automobile steel that offer excellent properties without expensive heat treatments, and nickel superalloys that operate safely at high temperatures. The physical metallurgists, studies the behavior of metals and their alloys, in order to characterize their internal structure, or microstructure; to understand how the microstructure influences the properties or the metal and to develop new and improved alloys. The physical metallurgist often uses sophisticated instruments to understand the structure and properties of metals. With the electron microscopes, the physical metallurgist can directly observe very tiny features of the microstructure and learn how these features
influence the metal's behavior. With such instruments even the arrangement of individual atoms in the metal can be observed.
The physical metallurgist develops strengthening mechanisms based on the micro-structural features in the metal. Strength can be increased by controlling the atomic structure in the metal, deforming the metal, or adding alloys. Heat treatment of alloyed metal can often significantly improve us strength. In a number of metal systems, heat treatments can produce complicated microstructures that prevent even very large cracks from growing. These metals may allow airplanes to safely operate with small cracks until the cracks are discovered and repaired.
Text H