HANDLING CONTEXT-BOUND WORDS
Introductory Notes
The words dealt with in the previous chapter are relatively independent of the context so that they have a definite meaning which is reproduced in many texts as it stands. This is not the case, however, with most words in the English vocabulary whose meaning in any sentence largely depends on the context in which they are used. True, all words have meanings of their
own which are defined in dictionaries but the context may specify or modify the word's meaning, neutralize or emphasize some part of its semantics. And before looking for an equivalent, the translator has to make a careful study of the context to identify the contextual meaning of the word that should be rendered in translation. This meaning is the result of the interaction between the word semantics and the methods of its actualization in the speech act.
Most of the words arc polysemantic, that is, they have several meanings. As a rule, the word is used in the sentence in one of its meanings and the context must show what meaning has been selected by the speaker and cut off all other meanings irrelevant for the particular act of communication. If somebody complains that 'Tew Europeans speak Mandarin", the context inequivocally shows that it is the Chinese language that is meant and not a Chinese imperial official or the Chinese fruit. If the same idea is expressed in a more ambiguous way, for instance, "Few Europeans know the first thing about Mandarin", the context of the sentence may fail to indicate the relevant meaning beyond any doubt but the rest of the text or the circumstances of communication will certainly do that.
The context has also a decisive role to play in the selection of TL equivalents to the words of the original. We know that in most cases, the meaning of a SL word can be rendered in TL by a number of regular equivalents. Variable equivalents can be found not only to the polysemantic words but also to the monosemantic words as well as to a semantic variant of a polysemantic word, that is, to one of its meanings which can be actualized in the course of communication. In such cases after the translator has ascertained what meaning the word has in the original text he still has to choose one of the regular equivalents which fits the context best of all. In other words, the role of the context is even greater for the translator than for an ordinary SL receptor. Suppose he is to translate the following English sentence 'This issue of the paper devoted about half of its twenty news columns to the trial of a murderer". The context enables the translator to understand that the "issue" refers here to a publication, the "paper" is a newspaper and the "column" is a department in that newspaper. But he has also to find additional information in the context which will allow him to choose an equivalent to "issue" among such Russian words as «выпуск, издание, номер» or to compare the use of the Russian «отдел, колонка, столбец» as equivalents to "column".
No less important is the role of the context in translating the words with a wide range of reference whose equivalents are too numerous to be listed in any dictionary. For example, the English noun "record" is defined as "something that records" or "the recorded facts about something or
someone" and can refer to any document or any events, past or present. It is clear that the Russian names of documents or events cannot be foreseen and the translator has to find the appropriate occasional equivalent in each particular context.
The context may modify the meaning of a word to such an extent that its regular equivalents will not fit TT. In the following sentence: "History has dealt with Hitler; history will deal with all would-be Hitlers", the translator has to do with the verb "to deal" used in the sentence in the meaning which is usually rendered into Russian as «обходиться» or «поступать». But obviously history has dealt with Hitler as severely as he deserved and the translator will opt for a stronger occasional equivalent like «покончить». The ability to render the contextual meanings is an essential element of the translator's professional skill.
The contextual modification may extend to the connotative meaning of the word. The translator is greatly concerned about the adequate reproduction of this part of the word semantics since it has an impact upon the whole text. Pot example, the English noun "ambition" and the adjective "ambitious" can contextually assume either a positive or a negative connotation. Accordingly, "the UN ambitious program of providing food for the people of the earth" will be translated as «грандиозная программа ООН» while the "ambitious plans of South African racists" will be rendered as «честолюбивые планы южно-африканских расистов».
The English-Russian dictionary is the translator's best friend and assistant in finding the appropriate equivalent. Sometimes the context tells the translator that one of the dictionary equivalents to the given word can be well used in TT. Even if the entry in his dictionary does not provide him with an equivalent that fits his context, the translator can use the dictionary data to facilitate the solution. Suppose he comes across a sentence in ST which runs as follows:
The United States worked out a formula which later came to be known as dollar diplomacy.
None of the equivalents suggested by I.R. Galperin's "New English-Russian Dictionary" (йрормула, рецепт, догмат, шаблон) fits the context of the sentence which deals with a stage in the US political history. But combining these data with the context the translator will look for a Russian substitute for a "political formula" and may arrive at such terms as «политическая доктрина» or «политическая программа»:
США выработали политическую доктрину, которая впоследствии стала именоваться «долларовой дипломатией».
The translator should consult the context with special care if his dictio-
nary suggests only one equivalent. He should not be in a hurry to use this equivalent in his text without first ascertaining that the English word really is context-free and is always translated in the same way. In case it is not, the entry is not exhaustive and the translator should look for another way out. The "New English-Russian Dictionary', for example, treats the English words "opportunism" and "opportunist" as political terms and gives only one equivalent to each: «оппортунизм» and «оппортунист». An English-English dictionary, however, will define "opportunism" as "the art, policy, or practice of taking advantage of opportunities or circumstances". And when the word is used as a general term of disapprobation implying little regard for principles or consequences, the equivalents suggested by the dictionary have to be rejected in favor of such Russian words as «конъюнктурщик, приспособленец» and the like. This is also an illustration of the usefulness of an English-English dictionary to the translator who should always turn to it for more complete information on the word semantics.
Professional skill in using both the dictionary data and the information extracted from the context to solve his translation problems is the hallmark of a good translator.
Exercises
I. State what meanings of polysemantic words are actualized in the following sentences. Can the equivalents provided by your dictionary be used in the translation? If not, suggest an equivalent of your own.
1. Alan Rees, a businessman, was accused of handling the negotiations for ransom. 2. After the play the notices were unanimously favorable and there was praise for all concerned. 3. The actor had an awkward grace that could not be copied by anyone in the business. 4. Listen, we all have funny moods. We wouldn't be human if we didn't. 5. Josephine Carling was a heiress to an automobile fortune. 6. She prided herself or her chic. 7. The odorous part of human sweat, some scientists believe, appears to include volatile fatty acids produced by bacteria living on and in the skin. 8. The sister married a classmate of mine that's doing very well in Pittsburgh Plate Glass. One of their coming men. 9. She had always, all her life, been so religious about her cold cream and her facials. 10. He passed a lighted door from which issued music, and stopped with the sense of familiarity.
II. Find appropriate Russian equivalents to the word "record" in the following sentences.
1. The new candidate was known to have an excellent war record. 2. His father has a record of service with the company of 20 years. 3. It was clear that the general had carefully studied his aid's service' record. 4. Washington D.C., the US capital, is the city with the highest crime record. 5. By resorting to mass terror and armed violence against the black popula-
tion of South Africa its rulers reached a new shameful record in their racial oppression. 6. The AF of L is absolute boss of the strike-breaking International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. Its imperialist record fits it for this task. 7. The data published by the Office of Statistics show that food prices in the country are the highest on record. 8. "Your Honor," Arnold announced, "I move that the testimony of the witness be stricken out from the record." 9. The State Secretary finds that the US government has an unbroken record of friendship for China dating back to 1844. However shamelessly the American politicians claim to be friends of Chinese people, the historic record which distinguishes friend from foe cannot be altered. 10. Had the Republican candidates discussed the record of the Congress they would have exposed the Republican Party as a big business party which led the attack on the vital rights and liberties of the people.
III. Explain the contextual meanings of the words in bold type in the following sentences
and suggest their Russian equivalents.
1. The Union executive committee passed a resolution advisingthe workers to "sit-out" elections where neither party offers a candidate whom labour could support. 2. The grievance has still remained unsettled. It shows how long it takes to "process"a grievance and why a strike is often the only way to force a show-down. 3. People who think gangsters are only to be found in gambling dens and houses of prostitution are oldtimers.4. After the strike many participants of the meeting were beaten up by the Ford plant vigilants.5. The president of the Auto Workers Union was not at the rally; instead he redbaitedthe meeting and charged that it was a plot against him. 6. One of the planks in the Tory programme was to reduce personal consumption: this was to be done partly by rationingthe purse. 7. The amendment received 3,622,000 votes, while the Executive resolution received 4,090,000. This closevote at the Trades Union Congress faced the right-wing leaders with a tremendous problem in relation to the future Labour Party Conference. 8. The Coal Board aimed to have safety-levelstocks by the beginning of November but now they say they will be at least a million tons short. 9. Chicago. - A proposal that the problem of out-of-this world meat prices be put on the conference table for a working-over by packers,farmers, organized workers and consumers was made here by the President of the United Packinghouse Workers (AFL-CIO). 10. The bill was also opposed by such non-trust lobbies as the AFL lobby, the anti-saloonlobby and many others.
IV. Find the way of rendering into Russian the connotational meanings of the words in bold
type in the following sentences. Explain your choice of equivalents.
1. During the postwar period in the midst of the economic boom the
workers' conditions, although gradually deteriorating, were not so bad as to provoke desperate struggles. 2. Prior to the Civil War many slaveowners in the South nursed ambitious plans of extending their rule to the whole of the United States. 3. The imperialist appetites of the Tories drove them on to their East-of-Suez policies. 4. His appetite for travel was whetted and Chopin began to nurse the ambition of visiting the musical capital of Europe, Vienna. 5. The Good Neighbour policy was simply a reformulation of the old imperialism in order for it to countermove more effectively the growing nationalism and democratic spirit of the Latin American people. 6. The Communists are tireless advocates of peace, and at the same time were aggressive supporters of the anti-Hitler war. 7. The right-wing leaders aggressively sabotaged all efforts from the left to organize the workers of other industries. 8. The Union demanded that the existing grievance machinery be entirely scrapped and a modern, streamlined, effective scheme put into its place. 9. Much of his popularity is manufactured, much of his glamour has been streamlined by nimble-wilted press agents.