The concept of Centum and Satem languages.
The first division into an Eastern Group and a Western Group is important. The groups are marked by a number of differences in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, which suggests that there was an early division of the Indo-Europeans into two main areas, perhaps representing migrations in different directions. One of the distinctive differences in phonology between the two groups is the treatment of the PIE palatal k, which appears as a velar [k] in the western languages, but as some kind of palatal fricative, [s] or (sh)in the Eastern languages. Thus the word for hundred is Greek he-katon, Latin centum, Tocharian känt, Old Irish cet, and Welsh cant (the c in each case representing [k]), but in Sanskrit it is satam, in Old Slavonic seto (modern Ukrainian cто).
For this reason, the two groups are often referred to as the Kentum languages and the Satem languages. On the whole, the Kentum languages are in the West and the Satem languages in the East, but an apparent anomaly is Tocharian, right across in western China, which is a Kentum language. The division into Kentum and Satem languages took place around 1500 BC.
CENTUM (Western branch):Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Greek, Anatolian, Tocharian
SATEM (Eastern branch): Baltic, Slavonic, Albanian, Armenian, Indian, Iranian
…..D=======50. Division of the Frankish Empire and its linguistic consequences.
IIIc AD…..Vc – started the creation of Frankish empire
The Frankish Empire was the territory inhabited and ruled by the Franks from the 3rd to the 10th century. Under the nearly continuous campaigns of Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, and Charlemagne—father, son, grandson—the greatest expansion of the Frankish empire was secured by the early 9th century.
Charlemagne had several sons, but only one survived him. This son, Ludwik the fair (814-840), followed his father as the ruler of a united empire. When Louis died in 840, the Carolingians adhered to the custom of partible inheritance, and after a brief civil war between the three grandsons, they made an agreement in 843, the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the empire in three:
1. Louis' eldest surviving son Lothair I became Emperor in name but de facto only the ruler of the Middle Frankish Kingdom, or Middle Francia or King of the Central or Middle Franks. These areas with different cultures, peoples and traditions would later vanish as separate kingdoms, which would eventually become Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Lorraine, Switzerland, Lombardy
2. Louis' second son, Louis the German, became King of the East Frankish Kingdom or East Francia. much of these territories eventually evolved into modern Austria, Switzerland and Germany.
3. His third son Charles the Bald became King of the West Franks, of the West Frankish Kingdom or West Francia. This area, most of today's southern and western France, became the foundation for the later France under the House of Capet.
The expansion and consequent division of the Frankish Empire had a big influence on the development of languages in that region. As the Empire was gaining new territories it brought the franconian language to them, and overtime the substratum language became overshadowed, resulting in phonetical, lexical and grammatical changes.
…..E=======59. Early Germanic society: the material and spiritual culture. (p. 21)
Weapon. The main weapon of early Germans was spear (копье) with thin short tip, iron sword and bow with arrows. For protection they used shield made of leather or wood. The biggest shame for a warrior was to leave his shield on the battle field. The helmet was decorated with fangs of wild boar.
Household goods. The clothes ware kept in separate room. The food (pieces of meat) was taken out from boiler with the help of a big fork made of wood. They used earthenware or made plates and dishes of wood.
Clothes. Germans wore animal and sheep skin. Later, they started to make clothes of wool and flax. Men wore flax shirts and trousers, coarse mantles and jackets with long sleeves. Women wore long shirts, dresses and mantles. Shoes were made of thick piece of leather which was fastened to the feet with to thongs.
Dwelling. Houses of Germans consisted of 1 or 2 parts: one for people and the other for domestic animals. The roof was covered with rush and straw. Inside the house there was a open fire. Germans dug pits for keeping food supplies in winter, sometimes they lived there themselves.
Funeral ceremony. The deads were not buried, they were burnt. Their weapon and horses were buried also.
Beliefs.Paganism. The heathen Germans worshipped. Woden, sacrificed animals to Thor and Tiw. They also worshipped Freya and Nerthus. Their ancient songs tell of the earth-born god Tiusto and his son Mannus, ancestor of the whole German race.
Divination played great role in their life. They invented runic devination
2. English as a world language.
English is a West Germanic language that developed in England during the Anglo-Saxon era, in the fifth century AD when Germanic tribes began to move from their homes in Northern Germany and Jutland in order to settle in Britannia.
Historically, English originated from several dialects, now collectively termed Old English, which were brought to the island of Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers beginning in the 5th century. English was further influenced by the Old Norse language of Viking invaders. At the time of the Norman conquest(1066), Old English developed into Middle English. As a result of influence of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, and of the United States since the mid 20th century, Eng. has become the lingua franca in many parts of the world. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.
The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are: United States (215 million), United Kingdom (61 million), Canada (18.2 million),Australia (15.5 million), Nigeria (4 million),Ireland (3.8 million), South Africa (3.7 million), and New Zealand (3.6 million) 2006. Eng. is the required international language of communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy. English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren). Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences.
P. 106-108
39. The East Germanic branch of languages: general characteristics.
As a result of the expansion of the Germanic-speaking peoples, differences of dialect within Proto-Germanic became more marked, and we can distinguish three main branches or groups of dialects, namely North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic.
The East Germanic dialects were spoken by the tribes that expanded East of the Oder around the shores of the Baltic. They included the Goths, and Gothic is the only East Germanic language of which we have any record. Round AD 200 the Goths migrated south-eastwards, and settled in the plains north of the Black Sea, where they divided into two branches, the Ostgoths east of the Dnieper and the Visigoths west of it. The main record of Gothic is the fragmentary remains of a translation of the Bible into Visigothic, made by the Bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas in the middle of the 4th century. The Goths were later overrun by the Huns, but a form of Gothic was being spoken in the Crimea as late as the 17th century. It has since died out, however, and no East Germanic language has survived into our own times. + Vandal, Burgundian
53. The Époque of Vikings. (p. 27,28)
Viking:
- A man who left his home and sailed far away
- Vik “bay”, “gulf” – a person who is tied to bays with the further meaning of attacking passing ship from the bays
- Vig – “battle”, “flight”
The long slim boats of the Viking (20-50m in length, 5m in width) were pointed at both ends that allowed sailing in the opposite direction without turning the boat about.
The front end had a carved figure of a snake or dragon on it . Such a figure aimed at frightening evil spirits and horrifying enemies.
Boats could admit up to 150 persons and could be carried by men in case of necessity. By this method the Vikings could make long journeys over water.
Starting from the VIII century the British was raided by Scandinavians- the Vikings. Scandinavians settled northern and eastern parts of England.
878- Aelfred the Great routed the Danes at Edington. According to Wedmore peace a part of England was yield to the invaders and recognized as Danish territory - Danelaw.However, X-X1 centuries Scandinavians tightened their pressure on England.
In 1016 , the Danish king Knut drove the English king and added to England to their state . The rule of Denmark , however, was short-lived, andin 1042 , the authorities again transferred to King Magnus. (up to 1047)The influence of Scandinavian dialects of the English language has led not only to significant borrowing English words of Scandinavian origin , but also to changes in the grammatical structure of EnglishHowever Scandinavians didn’t stop the raiding on England.In 1066, Romanized Scandinavians - Norman - again occupied the power in England.
In 912 , they occupied the territory of France , and the French King Charles the Simple , creating with Norman peace treaty allowed them to settle the coastal territory in the north of France , known as Normandy .A half century the Normans who settled Normandy , landed at the head of Duke William at coast of England.1066 - The Norman conquest. William, Duke of Normandy, who had long lead the English throne, routed the English troops under king Harold Godwin near Hastings on October, 1066. Harold Godwin was killed and the English were defeated.
Authorities in England was the aristocracy, who spoke French. This led to massive infiltration of French words in the vocabulary of the English language . Only since the mid XIV century English gradually restoring its rights as the language of the government , judiciary and education.
…..F====== The first consonant shifting (Grimm’s Law).
Grimms Law expresses regular correspondences between IE and Germanic consonant . Rasmus Rask was the fist to open the phenomenon in 1818. and Jacob Grimm described the changes in his “Deutch Grammar” in 1822).
Essence: the type of articulation changes while the place of articulation remains unchanged. As a result there appeared more fricatives in Germanic languages than there were in IE l-ges.
The correspondences were grouped under three categories ( acts). Each of the acts coered quite a long period of time of 100 years and more.
| I act | IE voiceless plosives >Germanic voiceless fricatives p > f t > Ө k > h kw > hw | L pater > E father |
| II act | IE voiced plosives > G. voiceless plosives b > p d > t g > k gw > kw | R болото> E pool |
| III act | IE voiced aspirated plosives > G. voiced plosives bh > b dh > d gh > g gwh > gw | Skr bhratar > E brother |
Exceptions:
1. The shifting didn’t take place after fricatives(f, Ө,h) & s:
L stare – Gt standan
2. The second of the consonants didn’t undergo shifting:
L octo Gt ahtau 1 k > h
12 12 2 t = t
…..G====== The Germanic language family. General Characteristics
1. All the G.L. of past & present have common linguistic features, some of these features are shared by other groups in the IE family, others are specifically Germanic.
2. The Germanic group of lang. acquired their specific distinctive features after the separation of the ancient Germanic tribes from other IE tribes and prior to their expansion and disintegration that is during the period of the Proto Germanic language ( unattested). The aim is to provide the general idea of what the PGLang was like, to point out its linguistic ftatures. Theese PGfeatures, inherited by the descendant l-ges, represent the common features of the Germanic group.
3. Other common features developed later in the course of individual history of separate Germanic l-ges as a result of similar tendencies from PG causes. On the other hand many Germanic features have been disguised, transformed and even lost in later history.
Germanic languages possess several unique features, such as the following:
1. A large class of verbs that use a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of vowel alternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense; these are called the Germanic weak verbs; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the Germanic strong verbs
2. The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word
3. Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English
4. Strict differentiation of short and long vowels
5. Tendency for assimilation and reduction
6. A great number of fricatives, small number of plosives
7. No palatal consonants at all.
52. Gods of the Germanic pantheon: the days of the week, names of months. (p. 47)
Balder was the god of light. He was the son of Odin and Frigga. Odin’s battle maidens were called the Valkyries; they protected his favourite warriors and granted them victory. Odin held his court at Valhalla. This was the place where all brave warriors went when they died. Odin was usually pictured with a raven upon each shoulder. Loki was a great godlike giant, ‘the spirit of evil’. He was always ended up doing cruel and destructive things.
| Sunday | OE sunne – the sun The first day of the week was named for the sun god |
| Monday | OE mona – the moon Was devoted to the goddess of the moon |
| Tuesday | OE Tiw – the war-god Named in honour of the Anglo-Saxon god of war (ON Tyr) |
| Wednesday | OE Wodan – the god of divination and the dead Was named for the chief god and the giver of wisdom (ON Odin) |
| Thursday | OE Thunor – the storm-god Was named in honour of the ancient Germ. God of thunder |
| Friday | OE Fri – the fertility goddess (ON Frigda), goddess of the household and marriage, Oddin’s wife. Later became as Freya, goddess of the Earth |
| Saturday | OE Setern – Saturn, Jupiter’s father, the god of agriculture and sowing of seeds in Roman mythology. His feast, called the Saturnalia, began on December 17 and was a time of rejoicing and feasting. |
There were different versions of old Germanic names of months but in general they reflect the economical activities of the Germans. April was called grasmaand ( «a month of grass").
Farming has been reflected in the names brachmanoth (June - "the time of sowing after the harvest of the first harvest»), aranmanoth (July - "the month of harvest").
Months were devoted to the gods: April (eosturmanoth, ôstarmanoth) - the goddess Ostara, March (hredmanoth) - goddess Hrede etc.
Very soon, along with starogermanskimi names of months have been used in Latin (and later all regions of Europe, in Iceland, from the XIII century.)
……H======= 33. The home of the Indo-Europeans: the existing concepts.
The traditional view has been that the Indo-Europeans were a nomadic (кочові) or semi-nomadic people, who invaded neighboring agricultural or urban areas, and imposed their languages on them. This mass migration began in about 7000 BC or according to the traditional point of view it dates back to 4000BC or later.
After 4000 BC, when the language had developed into a number of dialects, people began to expand in various directions. In the course of their expansion, the Indo-Europeans overran countries which had reached a higher level of civilization than they had themselves.
There is one technical factor, which played a role in the expansion of Indo-Europeans. This was the use of horse-drawn vehicles, which was characteristic of Indo-European society. It is possible that Indo-Europeans were ahead of time, and it was their use of wheeled vehicles, especially the fast horse-drawn chariot, that enabled them to overrun such a large part of the Eurasian continent.
There Exist different hypotheses concerning prehistorical settlement of PIE as to the primeval motherland of PIE:
1) In Northern Europe - 6 millenium (Л. Кіліан, М. Звелбіл): Scandinavia, and the adjacent parts of Northern Germany, and it was often linked with a belief that the Germanic peoples were the ‘original’ Indo-Europeans;
2) In Central Europe – 3 millenium BC (Є. Прокош) – 2 large group of tribes – Forest (2 mill BC) and Steppe. Forest: northward – Germanic, southward - Celtic, Italic, Balkan, Greek; Steppe: northward – Baltic, southward - one Thracian and Illyrian; another Phrygian, Armenian; Indic, Iranian.
3) In the Balkans ( В.І. Грегорієв І.М.Дяконов)
4) South to the Caucasis ( forced by tribes), North to the Central Mesopotamis, Armenian hypothesis – 5 millenium ( Т.М Гамкрелідзе, Вячеслав Васильович Іванов):
…..I====== 12. The inflectional system of Proto-Germanic: general concept.
СТРАНИЦА 69 В САБО. Начинать читать снизу + таблица
26. The Indo-European legacy in the Germanic vocabulary: the notion of isogloss.
Lexical isoglosses cover all the areals of the IE language community. The areal of the isoglosses can be wider, narrower or it can cover only 2 or 3 areals. , as: Germanic – Baltic lexical isoglosses, Germanic – Slavonic, Germanic – Baltic - Slavonic
An isogloss is the locative boundary of a certain linguistic feature, such as the pronunciation of a vowel, the meaning of a word, or use of some syntactic feature.
One of the most well-known isoglosses is the centum-satem isogloss.
Western branch ( Centum): Celtic, Italic (Latin), Germanic, Anatolian, Hellenic, Tocharian
Eastern branch (Satem): Baltic, Slavonic, Arminian, Albenian, Aranian, Indo-aryan (Indic), Thracian
The isogloss:
narrow meaning: the line on the map showing the spread of this or that ling. phenomenon;
broad sense: a lexical or morphological unit common for certain group of lang-es and which is not encountered (не зустрічається) in the other lang.-es (я маю – в мене є; мешкати – проживати).
Words which have common IE root have certain lexical meaning. They reflect surrounding world, natural phenomena, things necessary for people for living. We distinguish such semantic groups of words:
· Natural phenomena and enviroment: heavenly bodies, atmospheric phenomena, relief, seasons
(snow,rain,cold)
· Names of animals, birds, plants
· Parts of human body
· Terms of kinship (mother, sister, son)
· Productive activity (cow, sheep, milk; some metals and their processing : iron, copper)
· Abstract notions
Similar to an isogloss, an isograph is a distinguishing feature of a writing system. Both concepts are also used in historical linguistics.
32. The Indo-European tree-diagram of languages: the notions of parent language, daughter languages and dialect; genetically related languages and closely related languages.
The Indo-European tree-diagram of languages: (p. 10-11)
Around 5 thousand languages are spoken in the world today. They can be grouped in different language families on the basis of genealogical principle. It is assumed that the Indo-European family of languages , has developed out of some single language, which must have been spoken thousands of years ago by some comparatively small body of people in a relatively restricted geographical area. This original language is called Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The people, who spoke it or who spoke languages evolved from it, are called Indo-Europeans.
The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask, Rasmus Rask and the German scholar Jacob Grimm. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher, in 1861. They established, with the help of their main method: the comparison, the definition of The language family: this is the language which is represented by a parent language and its daughters ( the divergent continuations of parent languages).
ü A parent language – a language from which a later language is derived: Latin is the parent language of Italian and French.
ü A daughter language. In historical linguistics, a daughter language is a language descended from another language through a process of genetic descent. Examples:
* English is a daughter language of Proto-Germanic, which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.
* Hindi is a daughter language of Sanskrit (/Prakrit), which is a daughter language of Proto-Indo-European.
Dialect – a form of a language spoken in a particular geographical area or by members of a particular social class or occupational group, distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation
Genetically related languages – are the divergent continuation of the same earlier language.
In linguistics, genetic relationship is the usual term for the relationship which exists between languages that are members of the same language family.
Two languages are considered to be genetically related if one is descended from the other or if both are descended from a common ancestor. The source language can be called the "ancestor language" or the "mother language", and the later languages deriving from it are called the "descendant languages" or the "daughter languages".
ü Closely related lang-es – are genetically related lang-es possessing a lot of features in common, such as English and Frisian or Danish and Swedish.
….M======== 20. The morphological structure of the noun in Proto-Germanic.
The original reconstructed structure of noun in PG as in other Indo-European languages included three main morphological components: root, stem-forming suffix (which made up a stem) and inflection. In addition, the stress was movable. The root rendered lexical meaning; stem-forming suffix was placed between root and inflection. Later the stem-suffix merged with other components of the word (inflection) and the three-morpheme structure was transformed into a two-morpheme structure: stem and Inflexion with fixed stress on the first root syllable in the stem.
Neither of Indo-European languages preserved words with an ideal three-component structure.
In Gothic, as in the oldest periods of the other Germanic languages, nouns are divided into two great classes, according as the stem originally ended in a vowel or consonant. Nouns, whose stems originally ended in a vowel, belong to the vocalic or so-called Strong Declension. Those, whose stems end in –n, belong to the Weak Declension.
47. Main sources of information about the Germanic tribes. The Germanic tribes in the I AD (p. 15,21,22-25)
Ø Archeology and ethnography data
Ø Borrowing in the lang-es of the neighbouring nomadic tribes
Ø Written records
Ø The written records are as follows:
| PYTHEAS from Massilia, the Greek astronomer, traveler and geographer | IV c BC | An account of a sea voyage to the Baltic Sea. Has not come down to us. Was used by Greek and Roman writers, historians, geographers. |
| JULIUS CAESAR, the Roman general, writer and statesman | I c BC | Described some militant Germ. tribes who bordered on the Celts of Gaul in the North-East in his “Commentaries on the War in Gaul” (“Записки про галльську війну”). |
| PLINY THE ELDER, the Roman scientist and writer | I c AD | Made a classified list of the Germ. tribes grouping them under six headings in “Natural History” (“Природна історія”). |
| CORNELIUS TACITUS, the Roman historian and senator | I-II c AD | Complied a detailed description of the life and customs of the ancient Germans. Reproduced Pliny’s classification of the Germ. tribes, characterized their social culture. “Germania” (“Германія”), “Annales” (“Анали”). |
| JORDAN, the Gothic historian | VI c AD | His work “On the Origin and History of the Goths” (“Про походження та історію готів” чи “Гетика”) was written in Latin and comprised the description of historical events from Cassiodor’s history (533) and legends of the Goths of those times. Cassiodor’s history has not come down to us. |
| BEDE the Venerable, the English scholar and monk | VIII c D | “Ecclesiastical History of the English People” (“Церковна історія народу англів”). |
| SNORRI STURLUSON, the Old Icelandic statesman, poet and historian | XIII c AD | “Younger Edda” (“Молодша Едда”) – prose Edda. |
…..N========40. The North Germanic branch оf languages: general characteristics.
It took approximately 5 centuries for the Old Germ. lang-es (dialects) to form the features of individuality to be definitely distinguished from one another, with the East Germ. lang-es having died away by the time the North Germ. lang-es manifested features of differentiation.
The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask, Rasmus Rask and the German scholar Jacob Grimm. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher, in 1861. They established, with the help of their main method: the comparison, the definition of The language family: this is the language which is represented by a parent language and its daughters ( the divergent continuations of parent languages).