VII.Suppose you are the principal of an IE school. Speak about your school, its aims, your students.
VIII.You are choosing a school for your child. Speak about the advantages of a IE school, and try to persuade other parents to send their children to this type of school.
COGNITION AND LANGUAGE
Cognition is essentially the process of thinking, decision making, judging, imagining, problem solving, categorizing, and reasoning – all the higher mental processes of human beings. These diverse mental activities may seem to be a jumble of topics without any common elements, but a common ground underlies them all: they all depend on knowledge that derives from learning and memory.
Much of our knowledge is encoded in our memory in verbal form, so that language is essential to learning, thinking, and remembering. But imagine how impossible language would be if everything had a unique name. One way the mind reduces its work is by grouping similar objects and events under the heading of a single concept. Classifying similar things together by concepts or categories enables us to cope with the task of naming and representing the infinite variety of things in our world.
How do we recognize an object as a member of a category? We check to see whether it shares a number of typical features, or properties, of that concept. All oranges, for example, share such properties as yellowish-red colour, baseballish size, spherical shape, nubbly texture, and peelable rind – in addition to their unique, unmistakable smell and taste. When we consider an object that might be an orange, we check to see whether it has at least a few of these features. Once we have decided that the object does belong to a given class, we can then make inferences about it on the basis of these shared properties. If you are blindfolded and presented with a round, pebbly-surfaced object that smells like an orange, you can predict its other features — colour, taste, and so on. Even this simple example shows how categories simplify the world's diversity and reduce the mind's work.
No one comes into the world with a ready-made stock of concepts; we acquire them slowly, and they reflect our knowledge about the world. Concepts can be learned by direct teaching or by observation. 
In either process we learn the concept in terms of a collection of features and the relationships among the features.
Each concept consists of a prototype, or central core, which encompasses the very best examples of the concept. The prototype may be thought of as the collection of the most typical features characterizing the category as a whole. Surrounding the prototype is a collection of instances that are more or less typical of the category.
Just what makes an instance more or less typical of a category? Eleanor Rosch and Carolyn Mervis investigated this question and found that family resemblance was the key: the more closely an instance, let's say "apple", resembled many other category members, the more typical it was judged to be.
Psychologists have also investigated the way we learn and use the prototypes that lie at the hearts of our categories. If subjects are shown only instances that vary in minor ways from the central prototype, they quickly come up with a good conception of that central prototype. The social and personality categories we use every day are called stereotypes. They seem to be constructed like most other natural categories: the category consists of a prototypic instance, flanked by members of decreasing similarity. The fuzziness of these categories is reflected in our culture's personality prototypes or stereotypes – the introvert, the extrovert, the hostile child, the lonely person, the bully, and so on: there are extreme and moderate examples of all these types. Similarly fuzzycategories exist for ethnic groups and for psychiatric diagnostic categories, such as mentally retarded and schizophrenic. Indeed, they exist for insanity (or sanity) itself.
Rosch's studies concern common categories, those for which our language has devised as a label. But not all the categories we use have labels. People continually make up ad hoccategories, spur-of-the-momentcategories constructed to handle particular functions, often as a part of goal-directed plans. But ad hoc categories differ from common categories in an important way: typical members may bear little resemblance to other members of the category family. A major reason for categorizing people, places, and objects is so that we can make appropriate judgments about them and then decide how to act towards them. On the job we behave differently if we believe we are talking to one of our bosses or one of our subordinates. Obviously, our categories and judgments play a basic role in the decisions we make about how to behave in given situations.
Language is a social tool, and its principal function is to coordinate our actions and exchanges with others in our social group. We use human language to communicate information from one person to another and to influence one another's actions. Many other species also have simple communication systems: bees dance on the floor of a hive to tell other workers where nectar has been found, seagulls use distinct cries to communicate the location of food or the presence of danger. But such animal signaling systems are simple and rigid. By contrast, human language is incredibly flexible and complex.
Language is a tool used by human beings - a tool for manipulating the social environment. We can look at any tool from two different points of view: in terms of its structure, or in terms of its function. The study of language's structure is the province of linguistics.
Our system of language forms a sort of bridge, or chain of relationships, between our thoughts and the sounds we make in order to communicate. We pack our thoughts together and find ways of expressing them in accordance with the grammar of our language – the rules that describe the levels of speech in our language and the way those levels are interrelated. We follow the rules that govern the way we connect our thoughts before we speak them. We usually speak in order to express a thought or convey an intention. But the thought is not the same as the actual sentence we utter. The thought occurs in our consciousness in the form of a proposition, consisting of a subject with a predicate. But most of our thoughts are complex. So in order to express these complex relationships in an utterance, we often package several propositions in a single sentence, following the rules of grammar.
Psychologists are interested in grammatical phrases (which are also called constituents), because people treat them as perceptual chunks that have unity and integrity. Speakers tend to utter whole constituents in bursts separated by pauses, and listeners tend to "hear" whole constituents at a time.
If we could not get our ideas across to other people and discover what they had in mind themselves, each of us would exist inside a virtually impenetrable shell. Human interaction would be almost impossible, and if people could not interact with one another, societies could not exist, and cultures could not be transmitted from one generation to the next.
Psychologists are interested not only in language's structure, but also in its function, or how it is used – the field of psycholinguistics. As a tool for social communication, language coordinates the thoughts and actions of the speaker and the listener. A speaker uses language for a purpose: to arrange a date, perhaps, or to offer a cup of coffee to a guest, warn an intruder to leave, or thank a friend for a gift. The study of the way a speaker uses language to accomplish some goal that depends on a listener's comprehension is known as pragmatics.
List of Vocabulary
to acquire- набувати
ad hog- на конкретний випадок
to accomplish- виконувати, досягати
appropriate- відповідний, придатний
blindfolded- із зав’язаними очима
bully- хуліган
cognition- пізнання
comprehension- розуміння, охоплення
to convey- передавати, повідомляти
to cope with- справлятися, упоратися з чимось
diverse- інший, відмінний
to devise- придумати, виробити
essential- обов’язковий
flanked- розташований збоку
flexible- гнучкий, податливий
fuzziness- неясність, непевність
hive -вулик
hostile- ворожий, вороже налаштований
impenetrable - непроникний, недоступний, незбагненний, недосяжний
infinite- безмежний
instance- зразок
integrity- цілісність
judgement- судження
jumble- купа, безладна суміш
nubbly- вузлуватий
to predict- передбачати
property- властивість
proposition- пропозиція судження, диктум
resemblance- подібність
retarded- відсталий
rigid- грубий, позбавлений образів
rind- шкіра
sаnity- здоровий розум, нормальна психіка
species- вид, рід
spur-of-the moment- миттєвий, інстинктивний
tool- знаряддя
to utterпромовляти
utterance- висловлення
to vary- змінюватися, різнитися
Essential Phrases
(to be sought in the text)
Класифікувати та обґрунтовувати; розумова діяльність; нескінченне розмаїття речей; мати спільні ознаки; зробити умовивід; готовий поняттєвий апарат; формувати поняття шляхом спостереження; родова подібність; прототип на ознака; розмитість категорій; розумова відсталість; виконувати функцію; виявляти незначну схожість; гнучка і розгалужена система; сфера лінгвістики; передати намір; з’являтися у формі пропозиції; смислова група; передаватися з покоління в покоління; досягнути мети.
Ex. 1. Answer the questions on the text:
1. How is cognition connected with learning and memory?
2. What helps us cope with the task of naming and representing the infinite variety of things in the world?
3. How do categories simplify the world's diversity and reduce the mind's work?
4. What is a prototype?
5. Who is the author of the theory of prototype?
6. Do only people have their language?
7. What stages does the thought go through before it is verbalized?
8. What do psycholinguistics and pragmatics study?
9. Is the world possible without language?
10.How do we recognize an object as a member of a category?
Ex. 2. Fill in the blank with the vocabulary word that best suits the meaning of each sentence:
1. Have you noticed that he hasn't ... a word for the last 24 hours?
2. This rare bird has become an endangered ....
3. The factory ... very well with the sudden increase in demand.
4. The fortune-teller ... that I would marry a doctor.
5. Lucy is very ... and can't read yet though she is nine.
6. I don't feel our visit really ... anything.
7. We can visit you any time you want – our plans are fairly....
8. The programme deals with subjects as ... as pop music and ancient Greek drama.
9. Words are the ... of his trade.
10. Our government's anger was ... to their ambassador.
11. Many plants have medical....
. Read the text and explain why fathers smile less than mothers:
Translating the Smile
Stettner, a psychologist at Wayne State University in Detroit, says smiling is a complicated and important form of self-expression, and he believes that improved knowledge of it could have practical implications.
Besides, it feels good, Stettner said at a symposium on his favourite subject at a meeting of the International Primatological Society.
"It's like discovering a language system", he said. "I've become ensnared in working out the vocabulary of smiling". Stettner told the symposium that there are many different kinds of smile – 1, 814, 400, by his estimate. "That could be off by several hundred thousand", he added, not with a straight face.
He turned serious when explaining some of the practical applications of his work. "A lot of people are interested in smiles. People who study a foreign language, for example, ought to know what different smiles signify in different cultures. You learn a language but you don't learn the nonverbal language".
Most of what is known about smiling comes from studies of infants and their parents. Sidney Perloe of Haverford College in Pennsylvania tried to determine why fathers tend to smile less at the antics of babies than mothers do.
It had been thought that fathers had less reason than mothers to develop rapport with infants because fathers play a smaller role in nurturing the infant. But Perloe found that males are less likely to smile simply because they are more aware that they are being watched by other adults and may fear that smiling at babies might be unbecoming.
Ex. 10. Read the text again and choose the information on:
1. Stettner's research.
2. Sidney's studies.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is communication using the body or cultural symbols other than spoken words.
Nonverbal communication is largely based on the use of the body to convey information to others, as suggested by the common phrase body language. Facial expressions are crucial to nonverbal communication. Smiling, for example, is a symbol of pleasure, although we distinguish between the casual, lighthearted smile, a smile of embarrassment, and the full, unrestrained smile we often associate with the "cat who ate the canary". Other facial expressions are used to convey an almost limitless range of human emotions, including anger, confusion, disgust, pain, indifference, sadness, and seriousness of purpose.
Eye contact is another widely used means of nonverbal communication. In general, eye contact is an invitation to further social interaction. An individual across the room "catches our eye", for instance, and a conversation begins. Avoiding the eyes of another, in contrast, discourages communication. Our hands speak for us too. Hand gestures commonly used within our culture can convey, among other things, an insult, a request for a ride, an invitation to have someone join us, or a demand that others stop in their tracks. Gestures of this kind are commonly used to supplement spoken words. Pointing in a menacing way at someone, for example, gives greater emphasis to a word of warning, as a shrug of the shoulders adds an air of indifference to the phrase "I don't know", and rapidly waving the arms lends urgency to the single word "Hurry!"
Like all symbols, nonverbal communication is largely culture-specific. A smile indicates pleasure the world over, but many gestures that are significant within North American culture mean nothing – or something very different – to members of other cultures. Indeed, a gesture indicating praise in North America may convey a powerful insult to those who "read" the performance according to a different set of rules.
The examples of nonverbal communication presented so far are elements of a deliberate performance. Nonverbal communication is often difficult to control, however. Sometimes, in fact, verbal communication (information we give) is contradicted by nonverbal cues (information we give off). Listening to her teenage son's explanation for returning home at a late hour, for instance, a mother begins to doubt his words because he is unable to hold eye contact. In this manner, nonverbal communication may provide clues to verbal deception.
Ex. 1. Answer the following questions:
1. How would you define nonverbal communication?
2. What is the other term for nonverbal communication?
3. What does smiling signify?
4. What emotions do facial expressions convey?
5. What are the means of conveying nonverbal communication?
6. Why do we say that nonverbal communication is culture-specific?
7. Is it easy or difficult to control nonverbal communication?
8. Give examples of nonverbal communication.
Ex. 2. Make up disjunctive questions of the following sentences and respond to them:
1. Nonverbal communication is based on the use of the body to convey information.
2. Facial expressions are crucial to nonverbal communication.
3. Eye contact is a widely used means of body language.
4. Hand gestures are also eloquent in communicating with people.
5. Hand gestures supplement spoken words.
6. Body language is largely culture specific.
7. Nonverbal communication is often difficult to control.
Ex. 3. Search the text for the facts to prove the following statements:
1. Facial expressions are crucial to nonverbal communication.
2. Nonverbal communication is greatly based on the culture we live in.
Ex. 4. Think of all possible situations where nonverbal communication plays a greater part than spoken words.