B) Explain the difference in duties between the Tower Controller, Approach Controller, Area Controller.
- Tower Controller is responsible for the active runway surfaces. Tower Controller clears aircraft for takeoff or landing, ensuring that prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If Tower Controller detects any unsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to "go-around" and be re-sequenced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller.
- Approach Controller Terminal controllers are responsible for providing all ATC services within their airspace. Traffic flow is broadly divided into departures, arrivals, and overflights. As aircraft move in and out of the terminal airspace, they are handed off to the next appropriate control facility (a control tower, an en-route control facility, or a bordering terminal or approach control). Terminal control is responsible for ensuring that aircraft are at an appropriate altitude when they are handed off, and that aircraft arrive at a suitable rate for landing.
- Area Controller gives aircraft instructions, air traffic clearances, and advice regarding flight conditions while en route between airports. They provide separation between aircraft flying along the airways or operating into or out airports not served by a terminal facility. Centre controllers use radar, or in some cases, manual procedures to track the progress of all instrument flights within the centre’s airspace. Where radar coverage is available and their workload permits, ACC controllers also provide radar service to pilots who are not on instrument flight plans, alerting them to potential traffic conflicts. Controllers transfer control of aircraft to controllers in adjacent centres, or approach control, or terminal.
3 a) Essential local traffic information
It is an information which has to be given to the crew in case if there is any other aircraft, vehicle or personnel on or near manoeuvring area or if there is traffic operating in the vicinity of the aerodrome. This information has to be given if there is any traffic which may constitute a hazard to the aircraft concerned.
For example:
‘Traffic 11 o’clock, crossing left to right. B747, maintain own separation.’
Essential local traffic information has to be issued by unit providing control service when such information is necessary in the interest of safety or when requested by aircraft.
b) What famous pilots and aircraft designers do you know?
- The Wright brothers were the first to join airframe to the engine and to provide its controllability in the flight.
- The boom of aviation has begun in France after the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont, resident in Paris, circled the Eiffel Tower on his airplane in 1906.
- Mikhail Yefimov performed the first demonstrative flights in Odessa on the 8-th of March 1910. He was the first professionally qualified pilot in Russia.
- Sergey Utochkin, the self-taught pilot, performed his flight over the same hippodrome in Odessa one week later. Later on Yefimov and Utochkin performed demonstrative flights in Kharkov, Kiev, St. Petersburg, Moskow and other cities of Ukraine and Russia.
- Ihor Sikorsky (1889 – 1972) was the most talented pilot and aircraft designer. He constructed the first multi-engine Russian plane, designed Ilia Muromets, the best plane of the World War I till 1939 designed 15 types of aircraft and created about 10 types of helicopters.
- Petr Nesterov (1887 – 1914) the father of aerobatics, performed the loop in Kiew.
- Oleg Antonov was an outstanding designer. His Design Bureau created about 30 types of glides and 15 types of aircraft from the smallest up to the largest ones in the world. These planes created the market of super heavy cargo transportation services in the world civil aviation. Ruslans and Mria (AN – 225 aircraft) subdued the air world. In 2003 12 countries of the NATO made a decision to use AN-124 aircraft in their missions.
4. a) Selection procedures of RW-in-use
The runway is integral part of each airport. There can be one or more runway located at one airport. If there are two or more runways at the airport, then they can be used for arriving aircraft and departing aircraft.
The runway-in-use has to be chosen according to the wind direction and wind speed, runway conditions, weather conditions and so on. In selecting the runway-in-use, however, the unit providing the aerodrome control service shall take into consideration other factors such as the aerodrome traffic circuits, the length of the runway, and the approach and landing aids available.
If any emergency situation takes place on board and the pilot (or the flight crew) requests permission to use another runway, then the air traffic controller has to give such clearance just in case if circumstances permit.
b) What is the role of aviation in your life?
I want to become an air traffic controller. My choice of this occupation hasn’t come as a sudden flash. During all school years my favorite subjects were mathematics, geography and English. I’ve read a lot of books about traveling by air, geography and especially aviation.
I understand that I have to do my best to reach my dream: to become an air traffic controller as my father is. I would like to control traffic cruising in the sky.
I know that controlling air traffic is a very specific and difficult job. It shouldn’t be taken easily. The controller is a person who is responsible for safety of people’s lives.
5. a) Issuance instructions procedure relating to going around again.
The Air Traffic Controller gives the aircraft instruction to go around when
· the runway is blocked;
· the minimum separation between the aircraft is not maintained;
· weather conditions are below pilot’s minima;
· meteorological situation at the airport is not favourable.
If the pilot does not observe the runway, or he can not perform landing because of some technical problems (for example, the landing gear is not extended) he can perform a ‘go around’ procedure. In this case the Tower controller issues the instruction to climb to the aerodrome traffic circuit altitude and to contact Approach Control.
Example:
C: ABC 127. Go around due blocked runway. Climb to altitude 3000 feet. Contact Approach 123.7.
b) What is the role of an ATCO in case of medical emergencies?
In case of a medical emergency, an ATCO should ask pilots whether they wish to declare an emergency.
Flight crew incapacitation may normally result in an automatic landing. An ATCO should use the phrase "life-threatening" to clarify the situation. If there are critically ill passengers on board, it may result in emergency descent. And controllers are responsible for alerting the appropriate medical services and providing necessary equipment like stretchers, wheelchair.
6. a)Procedure for providing other types of clearance on landing.
When it is necessary to expedite traffic, the landing aircraft may be requested to:
- hold short of the intersecting runway after landing;
- land beyond the touchdown area of the runway;
- vacate the runway at the specified exit taxiway;
- expedite vacating the runway.
If the pilot-in-command considers that he/she is unable to comply with the requested operation/instruction, the controller shall be advised without delay.
b) What landing systems and types of approach do you know?
Landing system: an aircraft can make landing using different landing systems such as: 1) VFR landing,
2) IFR landing.
Type of approach:
a) ILS;
b) MLS;
c) NDB;
d) Precision Radar;
e) VOR DME;
f) Surveillance Radar.
7. a) Issuance clearance procedure for landing.
The clearance for landing is issued when:
1) There is no obstructions on RW;
2) Separation between arriving aircraft is maintained;
3) There is no traffic on final approach.
Clearance to land should normally be passed to the aircraft before it reaches a distance of 4 km from touchdown. To reduce the potential for misunderstanding, the landing clearance shall include the designator of the landing runway.
b) How should an ATCO assist a crew in of hijacking?
Whenever unlawful interference with an aircraft is suspected, and where automatic distinct display of SSR Mode A Code 7500 and Code 7700 is not provided, the radar controller shall attempt to verify any suspicion by setting the SSR decoder to Mode A Code 7500 and thereafter to Code 7700.
Whenever unlawful interference with an aircraft is known or suspected or a bomb threat warning has been received, ATS unit shall promptly attend to requests and anticipated needs of the aircraft.
ATS units shall also:
a) transmit, and continue to transmit, information pertinent to the safe conduct of the flight, without expecting a reply from the aircraft;
b) monitor and plot the progress of the flight with the means available, and coordinate, transfer of control with adjacent ATS units without requiring transmissions or other responses from the aircraft;
c) inform, and continue to keep informed, appropriate ATS units;
d) notify the operator; the appropriate rescue coordination centre in accordance with appropriate alerting procedures; the designated security authority;
e) relay appropriate messages, relating to the circumstances associated with the unlawful interference, between the aircraft and designated authorities.
The ATS unit in communication with the aircraft shall ascertain the intention of the flight crew and report those intentions the other ATS units.
The aircraft shall be handled in the most expeditious manner to ensure the safety of ground installations.
Aircraft in flight shall be given reclearance to a requested new destination without delay. Any request by the flight crew to climb or descend shall be approved as soon as possible.
An aircraft on the ground should be advised to remain as far away from other aircraft and installations as possible and if appropriate, to vacate the runway.
An aircraft known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference or which for other reason needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities shall be cleared to the designated isolated parking position. Where such an isolated parking position has not been designated, or if the designated position is not available, the aircraft shall be cleared to a position within the area or areas selected by prior agreement with the aerodrome authority. The taxi clearance shall specify the taxi route to be followed to the parking position. The route shall be selected with a view to minimizing any security risks to the public, other aircraft, and installations at the aerodrome.
8. a) Issuance clearance procedure for taking off.
Take-off clearance may be issued to an aircraft when there is reasonable assurance that the separation will exist when the aircraft commences take-off. When an ATC clearance is required prior to take-off, the take-off clearance shall not be issued until the ATC clearance has been transmitted to and acknowledged by the aircraft concerned.
The take-off clearance shall be issued when the aircraft is ready for take-off and at or approaching the departure runway, and the traffic situation permits. To reduce the potential for misunderstanding, the take-off clearance shall include the designator of the departure runway.
In the interest of expediting the traffic, a clearance for immediate take-off may be issued to an aircraft before it enters the runway. On acceptance such clearance, the aircraft shall taxi out to the runway and take off in one continuous movement.
b) How do you understand an “emergency situation”?
An emergency can be either a distress or urgency condition.
Pilots declare an emergency when they are faced with distress conditions such as fire, mechanical failure, or structural damage. However, some are reluctant to report an urgency condition at the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about fuel endurance, weather or any other conditions that could adversely affect flight safety. This is the time to ask for help, not after the situation has developed into a distress condition.
Pilots who become apprehensive for their safety for any reason should requestassistanceimmediately. Ready and willing help is available in the form of radio, radar, direction finding stations and other aircraft. Delay has caused accidents and cost lives.
9. a) Issuance clearance procedure for taxiing.
Prior to issuing a taxi clearance, the controller shall determine where the aircraft concerned is parked. Taxi clearances shall contain concise instructions and adequate information so as to assist the flight crew to follow the correct taxi routes, to avoid collision with other aircraft or objects and to minimize the potential for the aircraft inadvertently entering an active runway.
When a taxi clearance contains a taxi limit beyond a runway, it shall contain an explicit clearance to cross or an instruction to hold short of that runway.
The appropriate ATS authority should whenever practicable publish in the national AIP standard taxi routes to be used at an aerodrome. Standard taxi routes should be identified by appropriate designators and should be used in taxi clearances.
Where standard taxi routes have not been published, a taxi route should, whenever possible, be described by use of taxiway and runway designators. Other relevant information, such as an aircraft to follow or give way to, shall also be provided to a taxiing aircraft.
b) Runway incursion. What is it?
RUNWAY INCURSION is an incident where an aircraft enters a runway without an air traffic control clearance. It may involve the incorrect presence of a vehicle or a person on the protected area of a surface designated for aircraft landing and take-off.
This may include:
• two aircraft coming head-to head
• an aircraft colliding with another one
• an aircraft colliding with a ground vehicle
• an aircraft entering an active RW
This may cause:
• an aircraft damage to the aircraft, either minor or severe
• forced to go around
• an official investigation of accidents
10.a) Issuance clearance procedure for towing.
There are parking stands at every airport where the start-up procedure is not available (near terminal buildings, etc.). In such cases the pilot requests towing to the start-up area where the Ground Power Unit (GPU) is.
The controller only approves tow clearance to the start-up area, but the responsibility rests on the flight crew and the driver of the tow-unit.
After landing the aircraft can request a tug if it is unable to taxi under its own power.
b) How dangerous is fire on board?
One of the most dangerous accidents on board the plane is fire. It usually takes 2 minutes from the beginning of the fire till non-survivable conditions. The higher level at which it occurs, the more serious the situation is. The controller should not call the crew until they get a survivable level. In case when fire is not put out the plane descends to make a forced landing. After forced landing passengers and crew must be evacuated without delay. The most common causes of fire are short circuit, transportation of dangerous goods, smoking, fuel leak, bomb explosion. Engine on fire results in abandoned take-off engine failure, smoke or fire in the cockpit and emergency landing.
11. a) Issuance clearance procedure for start up engines.
The Air Traffic Controller has to ensure that the crew has monitored the latest ATIS information and it has the ATC clearance:
‘… cleared to … via flight planned route, SID…, squawk …’
Example:
P: Foxtrot Ground. ABC 127. Stand 17. Request start-up. Information Bravo.
C: ABC 127. Foxtrot Ground. Cleared to Odessa via flight planned route. Ralos 4 Departure. When airborne contact Approach 122.3. Squawk 5766. Clearance limit 25. Start-up approved.
The pilot has to report his destination and flight rules (IFR or VFR).
b) How can an aircraft in distress inform ATC?
An aircraft in distress informs an ATCO using radiotelephone signal “Mayday” and setting code 7700 (7600 – radiocommunication failure? 7500 - unlawful interference shall be reserved internationally).
An aircraft can inform about difficulties by switching on and off its landing lights.
12. a) Procedure of issuing ATC clearance for departure and appropriate coordination when issuing such clearance.
The Air Traffic Controller shall give clearance for departure in the order in which aircraft are ready for take-off. The Air Traffic Controller has to be sure that the aircraft is ready to taxi in time to meet any required departure time, because if departure time and sequence is established on the taxiway system, it can be difficult and sometimes impossible to change the order.
The Air Traffic Controller has to be sure that the pilot understands him and is ready to follow his instructions. The controller has to get the information that the runway is vacated and a pilot acknowledges his instructions and messages.
b) Is it necessary for a pilot to have weather forecast?
A pilot is not able to fly without having weather forecast. A pilot must have a fundamental knowledge of the atmosphere and weather behavior to avoid hazardous flight conditions. Air masses do not always perform as predicted, and weather stations are sometimes spaced rather widely apart; therefore, a pilot must understand weather conditions occurring between the stations as well as the conditions different from those indicated by weather reports.
A meteorologist can only predict the weather conditions; a pilot must decide whether his particular flight may be hazardous one, considering his type of aircraft and equipment, his own flying, experience, and physical limitations.
13. a) Minima separation when Aerodrome Control Service provided.
There are several kinds of separation between aircraft using the same runway:
· between arriving aircraft and between arriving and departing aircraft longitudinal separation is used:
- H-H (heavy after heavy) – 8km;
- M-H and L-M – 10km;
- L-H – 12km;
- L-L – 6km.
In all other cases – 6 km.
· Between departing aircraft time separation is used:
- H-H – 1 min;
- M-H and L-M – 2 min;
- L-H – 3 min;
- L-L – 1 min.
In all other cases 1 min.
When the flight is operating below altitude 1700m distance separation 12, 10, 8, 6 km between aircraft has to be provided. In case when aircraft intends to depart not from the beginning of the runway after already departed aircraft separation has to be 3 minutes.
b) Communication failure. What is it?
If the aircraft cannot establish communication on the primary frequency, it should try to do that on the secondary and nearly ones and through aircraft - retransmits.
If he is unable to contact again, it means communication failure. The pilot should start his transmissions with the phrase “transmitting blind” and repeat his message twice on the primary and secondary frequencies. In case of communication failure a pilot can transmit but not receive messages, receive but not transmit messages, send carrier waves only.
14. a) Separation between aircraft using single (the same) RW.
There are three types of aircraft:
· heavy aircraft (H) - > 136 tones;
· middle aircraft (M) – 7-136 tones:
· light aircraft (L) - < 7 tones.
There are several kinds of separation between aircraft using the same runway:
· between arriving aircraft and between arriving and departing aircraft longitudinal separation is used:
- H-H (heavy after heavy) – 8km;
- M-H and L-M – 10km;
- L-H – 12km;
- L-L – 6km.
In all other cases – 6 km.
· Between departing aircraft time separation is used:
- H-H – 1 min;
- M-H and L-M – 2 min;
- L-H – 3 min;
- L-L – 1 min.
In all other cases 1 min.
In case when ‘M’ aircraft is going to depart after ‘H’ aircraft not from the beginning of the runway separation has to be 3 minutes also. Wake turbulence categories of aircraft and longitudinal separation minima shall be taken into consideration. Wake turbulence separation minima are based on aircraft types into three categories according to the maximum certificated takeoff mass as follows: H, M, L.
b) Why is it necessary for people to study foreign languages?
Some people learn languages because they need them for their work, others travel abroad, for the third studying languages is a hobby.
Everyone, who knows foreign languages can speak to people from other countries, read foreign writers in the original, which makes his outlook wider.
English is very important to find a good job. People, who know foreign languages, are necessary for the development of the techniques, economy and arts in the modern society. Most of scientific magazines in the world are published in English. It is impossible to be a good scientist without knowing this language.
A person, who learns a foreign language, at the same time gets acquainted with the culture of the country, its literature, history and geography.
Besides, a foreign language helps to know the native language better.
It helps us to develop friendship and understanding among people.
15. a) General provisions for the separation of controlled traffic.
Vertical or horizontal separation shall be provided:
a. between all flights in Class A and B airspaces;
b. between IFR flights in Class C, D and E airspaces;
c. between IFR flights and VFR flights in Class C airspace;
d. between IFR flights and special VFR flights; and
e. between special VFR flights, when so prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority;
except, for the cases under b) above in airspace Classes D and E, during the hours of daylight when flights have been cleared to climb or descend subject to maintaining own separation and remaining in visual meteorological conditions.
No clearance shall be given to execute any manoeuvre that would reduce the spacing between two aircraft to less than the separation minimum applicable in the circumstances.
Larger separation than the specified minima should be applied whenever exceptional circumstances such as unlawful interference or navigational difficulties cal for extra precautions.
b) What kinds of airspace restrictions do you know?
There are some kinds of airspace restrictions. They are:
Dangerous zones. It is a part of air space within which the activity of the aircraft is provided at specific periods of time which can be dangerous for aircraft navigation. The time of dangerous zones activity is fixed in the aeronautical information publications and in the appropriate NOTAMs. They are located in the territory of Ukraine over sea shootingranges (полигоны) and in the areas of air space where it is dangerous to fly.
Prohibited zones. It is a part of air space within which an aircraft navigation is prohibited except some cases foreseen by Regulations of Ukrainian Air Space usage. Prohibited zones over the territory of Ukraine are located over the atomic power stations, hydroelectric power stations, dams, some special industrial objects, nature reserves (заповедники) and some other objects.
Restricted zones. It is a part of air space over land territory or territorial waters within which the aircraft navigation is restricted. Restricted areas over the territory of Ukraine are located over aviation shooting ranges and testing sites (полигоны для испытания оружия). The flights in these zones depend on types of restrictions or special conditions, published in AIP of Ukraine.
16. a) Separation procedures in case of controlled traffic.
The Air Traffic Controller shall issue necessary information and clearances to aircraft under his control to achieve a safe separation.
Vertical separation (flight level or altitude) has to be provided according to the direction – eastern or western.
Flights above altitude 10,000 feet have to proceed under QNE (1013.2 hPa) and 10,000 feet and lower with QNH, then a pilot has to report an ‘altitude’, or if requested an Air Traffic Controller can give to the crew QFE, and then the pilot will report also ‘altitude’ but the facilities on board will indicate him a ‘height’.
Vertical separation between aircraft flying in the opposite direction is 1000 feet, until FL 290, and above FL 290 vertical separation is 2000 feet in the opposite direction.
Above FL 290 (RVSM zone) vertical separation between aircraft flying on the opposite direction is 1000 feet until FL 410, and above FL 410 – separation is 2000 feet.
Responsibility lies on the Air Traffic Controller in case of IFR flights and on the pilot in case of VFR flights.
In case of climbing/descending of an aircraft, the Air Traffic Controller has to maintain separation between aircraft using vertical rate of climb/descent.
Horizontal (lateral) separation of 20km has to be provided when the aircraft has to cross flight level (altitude) which is occupied by the other aircraft in the opposite direction. Lateral separation of 10km has to be provided when the aircraft is crossing the flight level occupied by the aircraft flying in the same direction.
Horizontal separation has to be provided between special VFR flights, when so prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority.
No clearance shall be given to execute any manoeuvre that would reduce the spacing between two aircraft to less than the separation minimum applicable in the circumstances.
Larger separation than the specified minima should be applied whenever exceptional circumstances such as unlawful interference or navigational difficulties cal for extra precautions.
b) What are the main objectives of “air traffic service”?
The objectives of the air traffic services shall be to:
a) prevent collisions between aircraft;
b) prevent collisions between aircraft on the maneuvering area and obstructions on that area;
c) expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic;
d) provide advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights;
e) notify appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organizations as required.
17. a) Application procedures of Radar information by Tower controller (relating to local conditions).
Radar information may be used in the provision of aerodrome control service to perform the following function:
- radar monitoring of aircraft on final approach;
- radar monitoring of other aircraft in the vicinity of an aerodrome;
- establishing radar separation between departing and arriving aircraft;
- providing navigation assistance for VFR flights.
b) What should a controller expect and remember in case of gear problems?
Expect:
- Manual gear extension, specialist advice may be required.
- Low passof tower for gear inspection by specialist engineering personnel.
- No gear or only partial gear deployment.
-Runway blocked after landing.
- The aircraft may skid off the runway.
- Taxiway may be blocked after clearing runway.
- Go around
- Missed approach procedure should be followed.
Remember:
- Follow the ASSIST code of practice
| A ‘Acknowledge’ – S ‘Separate’ – S ‘Silence’ – I ‘Inform’ – S ‘Support’ – T ‘Time’ |
-Clear the runway according to local instructions.
- Keep the safety strip clear.
- Check if the towing equipment is on standby.
ATC should also prepare for a LOW PASS of the aircraft to allow a visual inspection of the landing gear and the area around it.
-Technical assistance will be required e.g. a specialist engineer or another pilot.
- If dusk is approaching, the visual inspection should be arranged urgently.
- If visibility is bad, the observer should be at the side of the runway.
- If fog prevents visual checking from the ground, observation may be arranged from another aircraft.
IF NEEDED:
(This section applies particularly to light aircraft wherethe pilot may be inexperienced. Commercial pilots will usually already be familiar with these procedures.)
Assist by informing the pilot about:
In case of a manual gear extension not working, the pilot could attempt a g-load-extension whereby a sharp change in altitude is used to force the gear down.
Retracting the gear is impossible after a manual gear release so extra drag should be factored into any ATC calculations.
Having consulted with a specialist engineer, inform the pilot about the aircraft configuration, e.g. gear appears down / gear doors closed.
The pilot could check the bulbs are working on the gear extension indicator. Has the pilot contacted maintenance?
________________________________________________________________________
The undercarriage or landing gear is the structure that supports an aircraft on the ground and allows it to taxi, takeoff and land. Gear problems are connected with tire blow out, wheel well fire, jammed gear, no gear indication, unlocked or not retracted gear, flames coming from gear, hydraulic troubles, and brake difficulties. A belly landing or gear-up landing is when an aircraft lands with its landing gear in up position.
18. a) Application procedures of ground movement Radar Control (if such equipment available).
Surface movement Radar systems shall enable the detection and display of the movement of all aircraft and vehicles on the maneuvering area in a clear manner.
The use of SMR should be related to the operational conditions and requirements of the particular aerodrome (i.e. visibility conditions, traffic density and aerodrome layout). SMR should be used to augment visual observation of traffic on the MA and to provide surveillance of traffic on those parts of the MA which cannot be observed visually.
The information displayed on an SMR display may be used to assist in:
- monitoring of an aircraft and vehicles on the MA for compliance with clearances and instructions;
- determining that a RW is clear of traffic prior to landing or take off;
- providing information on essential local traffic on or near the MA;
- determining the location of aircraft and vehicles on the MA ;
- providing directional taxi information to aircraft when requested by the pilot or considered necessary by the controller;
- providing assistance and advice to emergency vehicle.
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Ground Movement Radar is called to help the air traffic controller of the aerodrome control tower to control the movement of aircraft and vehicles on the manoeuvring area of the aerodrome. This radar is used if it is impossible for the air traffic controller to control taxiing of aircraft visually or if visual contact is not available (in cases of low visibility).
b) What kind of information shall a flight plan contain?
Flight plan is a special document. A pilot can’t fly without it. A lot of important and necessary information is in it. Flight plan contains aircraft callsign, type of aircraft route of flight, number of passengers, assigned flight level, point of destination, alternatives, endurance, the significant reporting points and zones along the route, FL changes, the duration of flight, aircraft equipment, purpose of flight and some other information.
19. a) Procedures of aerodrome traffic (vehicles) and people control in the manoeuvring area.
The aerodrome control tower is responsible for movements of pedestrians and vehicles on the manoeuvring area. Persons, including drivers of all vehicles shall obtain the clearance from the aerodrome control tower before entry the manoeuvring area.
All vehicles and pedestrians shall give way to the aircraft which are landing, taxiing or taking off, except those emergency vehicles which are proceeding to help an aircraft in distress. They have priority of all over surface movement traffic.
When the aircraft is landing or taking off, vehicles shall not be permitted to hold closer to the runway-in-use than:
- at the taxiway/runway intersection or runway holding position;
- at the location other than the taxiway/runway intersection.
b) What do you know about ICAO language proficiency requirements?
20. a) Information related to aerodrome conditions.
Essential information on aerodrome conditions is information necessary to safety in the operation of aircraft, which pertains to the movement area or any facilities associated there with.
Essential information on aerodrome conditions shall include information relating to the following:
a. construction or maintenance work on, or immediately adjacent to the movement area;
b. rough or broken surfaces on a runway, a taxiway or an apron, whether marked or not;
c. snow, slush or ice on a runway, a taxiway or an apron;
d. water on a runway, a taxiway or an apron;
e. snow banks or drifts adjacent to a runway, a taxiway or an apron;
f. other temporary hazards, including parked aircraft and birds on the ground or in the air;
g. failure or irregular operation of part or all of the aerodrome lighting system;
any other pertinent information.
b)How do you understand “Human factor”?
Human Factors is a technology that deals with people: it is about people in their working and living environments and it is about their relationship with machines, equipment and procedures. Just as important, it is about their relationship with each other as individuals and in groups. It involves the over-all performance of human beings within the aviation system. Human Factors seeks to optimize the performance of people by the systematic application of the human sciences, often integrated within the framework of system engineering. Its twin objectives can be seen as safety and efficiency.
Human Factors has come to be concerned with diverse elements in the aviation system. These include human behaviour; decision-making and other cognitive processes; the design of controls and displays; flight deck and cabin layouts; air traffic control display systems; communication and software aspects of computers; maps, charts and documentation; as well as training.
In spite of the reliance on the academic sources of information, aviation Human Factors is primarily oriented toward solving practical problems in the real world. There are a growing number of integrated Human Factors techniques or methods; these varied and developing techniques can be applied to problems as diverse as accidents investigation and the optimization of personnel training.
Human Factors applies knowledge of how human beings perceive, sense, learn, understand, interpret, process, remember and use information, and also applies knowledge of how to measure human performance and its effects within a functioning system. Human Factors examines the many ways in which the controller and the system can affect each other, and helps to reveal whether the main influence on events in the structure of ATC system or the actions of individual controllers. Human Factors knowledge is applied to ATC to understand and quantify the interactions between the system and the human. It is used to guide how each other and to suggest how human and system requirements that may appear to differ can nevertheless all be met, so that ATC efficiency and safety are optimized without harm to the controller.
The aim of Human Factors in ATC is to match human capabilities and limitations with the specifications and design of the ATC system. This matching of human and system is an active process, the achievement of which may imply changes in either or both. Successful matching requires the correct application of the extensive Human Factors data available.
Despite rapid gains in technology, humans are ultimately responsible for ensuring the success and safety of the aviation industry. They must continue to be knowledgeable, flexible, dedicated, and efficient while exercising good judgment.
Human factor in aviation means "human error" factor involved in an aviation accident, crash; as opposed to failure of mechanical, electrical, other equipment.Human error is responsible for at least 30% of aviation accidents. This essay examines some of the human variables: pilot error and fatigue, air-traffic controller problems, unruly passengers and inadequate training.
Far too many accidents and problems in aviation are due to human error. This goes beyond pilot error. Sometimes it can be a mechanic leaving a tool in the cowl of an engine. It can be a problem with air traffic controllers or even unruly passengers.
21. a) Different types of flights.
Air transportation is the carriage of passengers, mail and freight by aircraft or helicopters. All air transportations are classified according to the territorial sign, to the objects of transportation and to the direction of transportation.
By the territorial division they are defined as domestic and international flights. Domestic and international flights are divided into schedule and non-schedule flights. Schedule flights are performed according to definite traffic schedule. Non-schedule flights are operated in accordance with special agreements and orders. On international routes they are known as charter flights.
Depending upon the object of transportation we define passenger, mail, load and freight flights.
As to their direction the flights differ as non-stopover flights, that is from the point of departure to the point of destination; round trips, from the point of departure to the point of destination and back to the starting point; and onward journey with the transfer from one airplane to another.
b) Why does the profession of an ATCO carry a high level of responsibility?
An ATCO is responsible for safety of flights and this is the main objective of ATC service. A controller is a master of the sky, a conductor of airways and routes. He controls all air traffic. A plane cannot take-off or make any manoeuvre without prior permission of ATC. A controller knows about his plane everything - its position now and in 5 minutes, the number of passengers on board, its endurance, the meteorological conditions of flight. A controller hears the plane and observes it on the radar screen. He is ready to help the crew at any time - from start up moment up to landing.
22. a) Convective storms. Why are they dangerous?
Hazardous conditions created by bad weather develop many components of the aviation weather system. For flight operations in the terminal area, including airports, the main threats include microbursts and low-level windshear, severe turbulence, lightning, and hazardous levels of precipitation (extremely heavy rain, large hail). In the en-route environment, convective storms can create regions of severe turbulence.
The term convective storms covers a wide range of possible storm phenomena, which range from rain, hail or drizzle to cold fronts or snow showers. Convective storms seriously disrupt ATC operations, especially in terminal control area (TMA) and airport environments. The major problems created by convective storms are delays, diversions, and cancellations when airport operations are curtailed. Accurately forecasting the appearance of convective weather is a major challenge facing the meteorological community.
b) Identification of aircraft.
Before providing radar service to an aircraft, radar identification shall be established and the pilot informed.
If radar identification is lost, the pilot shall be informed about that and, if possible, appropriate instructions issued.
Where SSR is used, aircraft may be identified by one or more of the following procedures:
a. recognition of the aircraft identification in a radar label;
b. recognition of the aircraft discrete code, the setting of which has been verified, in a radar label;
c. direct recognition of aircraft identification of a Mode S-equipped aircraft in a radar label;
d. by transfer of radar communication;
e. observation of compliance with an instruction to set a specific code;
f. observation in compliance with an instruction to squawk IDENT.
When a discrete code has been assigned to an aircraft, a check shall be made at the earliest opportunity to ensure that the code set by a pilot is identical to that assigned for the flight. Only after this check has been made shall the discrete code be used as a basis for identification.
Where SSR is not available, radar identification shall be established by at least one of the following methods:
a. by correlating a particular radar position indication with an aircraft reporting its position over, or as bearing and distance from, a point displayed on the radar map, and by ascertaining that the position is consistent with an aircraft path or reported heading;
b. by correlation an observed radar position indication with an aircraft which is known to have just departed, provided that the identification is established within 2 km( 1 NM) from the end of the runway used. Particular care should be taken to avoid confusion with aircraft holding over or overflying the aerodrome, or with aircraft departing or making a missed approach over adjacent runways;
c. by transfer of radar communication;
d. by ascertaining the aircraft heading, if circumstances require, and following a period of track observation:
e.▫instructing the pilot to execute one or more changes of heading of 30 degrees or more and correlating the movement of one particular radar position indication with the aircraft’s acknowledged execution of the instruction given, or
f.▫correlating the movements of a particular radar position indication with manoevres currently executed by an aircraft having so reported.
When using these methods, the radar controller shall:
i. verify that the movements of more than one radar position indication correspond with those of the aircraft; and
ii. ensure that the manoevre(s) will not carry the aircraft outside the coverage of the radar display.
Use may be made of direction-finding bearings to assist in radar identification of an aircraft.
When doubt exists as to identify of a radar position identification for any reason, changes of heading should be prescribed and repeated as many times as necessary, or additional methods of identification should be applied.
23. a) Is it necessary for air traffic controllers to possess a medical certificate?
Medical certification is obligatory for all air traffic controllers notwithstanding whether they are operating or on other duties. They have to undergo it every three years.
They should be examined as often as possible to avoid different problems that could influence their performance. Medical examination is usually provided by air navigation services providers and air traffic controllers don’t have to pay for it.
· The evaluation of medical fitness must be based on a medical examination conducted in accordance with the highest standards of medical practice.
· Individual air traffic controllers ought to consult their Aeromedical Examiners for advice regarding the likely impact of illness or medication on their fitness to provide air control services.
· Air traffic controllers who are under forty don’t have to renew their medical certificate annually but once every two years.
An application for a medical Assessment issues in accordance with the procedure shall undergo a medical examination based on the following requirements: physical and mental state, visual and colour perception, and hearing.
b) What weather conditions affect the work of an ATCO?
Weather is a major factor in traffic capacity. Rain or ice and snow on the runway cause landing aircraft to take longer to slow and exit, thus reducing the safe arrival rate and requiring more space between landing aircraft. Fog also requires a decrease in the landing rate. These, in turn, increase airborne delay for holding aircraft.
In Area Control Centers, a major weather problem is thunderstorms, which present a variety of hazards to aircraft. Aircraft will deviate around storms, reducing the capacity of the en-route system by requiring more space per aircraft, or causing congestion as many aircraft try to move through a single hole in a line of thunderstorms. Occasionally weather considerations cause delays to aircraft prior to their departure as routes are closed by thunderstorms.
24. a) How does lightning strike affect an aircraft?
A flash of lightning is a very dangerous phenomenon for any aircraft in the air. When an aircraft encounters front thunderstorm, it would better avoid it, otherwise the consequences can be unpredictable. In this case very strong electrical current appears in the electric circuit (both primary and secondary). It also can cause total electrical failure, after that an aircraft becomes uncontrollable and as a result there might be a crash.
b) What problems does an ATC face in Ukraine?
Speaking about the problems that Ukraine faces ATC, the following should be mentioned:
- a level of aviation safety and security;
- advanced and sophisticated technologies used in ATC worldwide and in Ukraine in particular;
- promotion and up-holding a high standard of knowledge and professional efficiency among air traffic controllers, and assisting and advice in the development of safe and orderly systems of Air Traffic Control;
- existing airway structure and dynamics of air traffic intensity;
- applied procedures, approaches and methods in ATC; etc
25.a) What is a bird strike?
An aircraft hitting a bird may create an emergency situation, known as Bird strike. The seriousness of this emergency depends on:
· the size of the bird;
· the speed of the aircraft on impact;
· the place it hits the aircraft;
· the phase of flight.
It effects may be very severe. The most dangerous strikes are to the windshield and engine.
Windshield cracked may result in possible flight crew injuries or death, flight control problems, forced or emergency landing.
A strike of this nature may lead to the ultimate loss of the aircraft. Strikes both in windshield and engine may impair the flying characteristics of the aircraft, making levels and heading difficult to maintain and safe landing difficult. They may ultimately lead to loss of control or even structure failure.
Bird ingestion generally happens when an aircraft encounters a big flock of small birds like owls, crows, ducks, seagulls. As a result an engine flame-out, ditching, rough or emergency landings are possible.
The bird strike might be very dangerous above all to aircraft flying at low altitudes.
The greatest risk of a bird strike is below 1,000 feet, with decreasing risk between 1,000 feet and 5,000 feet. The danger above 5,000 feet is much less but there is still some risk from migrating geese or other large birds, which have been encountered above 20,000 feet.
b) Give the interpretation and explanation to the acronym “ASSIST”.
Acknowledge Inform
Separate Support
Silence Time