Explicit Means of the Definite Reference

Means of expressing pragmatic conditions in the definite description

These means can be explicit and implicit.

El- D+pN the face of the youth

E2 - D+Adv the fields below

E3 - D+clause the changes that have begun...

E4 - A+D the most necessary and urgent duties

E5 – Q (numeral) +D the second day

E6 - Q(N)(card.num.)+D the 1970 constitution

E7 - D+toV (inf.) the opportunity to express

E8 - D+Ving 1(part.1) the man carrying...

E9 - D+Ven (part 2) the reform initiated by...

E10 - D+Ving2 (gerund) the reputation of being a beauty

Ell- D+PI (pronoun) the grass behind him

E12 – N2 (prop.n.)+D Colombo, the capital (appositive relations)

E13 - D+N (prop.n) the newspaper Times

E14 – N3+D the Geneva talks (no apposition)

A number of these explicit means are polisemantic/ polifunctional which means that they can express different types of pragmatic conditions.

In the darkness of early morning – quality

In the bar under the grand stand – location

The sudden arrival of these people – predicate-subject relations

The book of the man behind him – possession

The combination of several explicit means makes the semantics of definite description more complex.

He was the first patient to enter – E5+E7 (subject-predicate relations + temporal relations)

The identical combination of explicit means may bring about different combinations of pragmatic conditions

E1+E4

The most fashionable dressmakers in Paris (quality + location)

The most sacred traditions of the melodrama (quality + equivalence)

The function of explicit means is to duplicate the information about the referent to make it unique under the circumstances.

Implicit means

1) Associative anaphoric use (based on the previous knowledge)/presupposition

2) Shared general knowledge

3) Immediate situation use/ visible situation use

4) Posterior context (cataphoric use)

I1 -D + presupposition

She was a stout woman with a red face. The eyes seemed to confess inner tension – pragmatic conditions: possession

The owl hooted and the sound seemed to fill the whole night – pragmatic conditions: equivalence (hooting = sound)

I2 – D + shared knowledge

At the time just after the war … - pragmatic conditions: equivalence

I3 - D+ visible situation

The referent is located in the given situation.

Close the window - pragmatic conditions: location

I4-D + postcontext/cataphoric use (the explanation comes after the D)

And then came the catastrophe: she decided to marry that man.

Summary:

1) The definite article only signals the definite reference

2) It performs the individualizing function not by itself but only as a part of the definite description

3) The definite reference is realized through certain relations between the components of a noun phrase called pragmatic conditions.

4) The contextual meaning duplicate the information about the definite reference and reduce the sphere of reference to a particular object.

The conditions of the definite reference are as follows:

- there exist at least one object that the speaker refers to as a unique under the circumstances

- the idea of oneness

- existence

- unique character of the object (!)

Do you remember a man called Smith? – an object isn’t unique

Do you remember the man called Smith? – an unique object

This is a communicative intention of the speaker that makes an object unique (the speaker determines whether the object is unique or not)

The other semantic functions of the definite article are:

- class generalization

- total generalization

Class generalization – reference is made to the composite image of the whole class. The noun is used in the singular (!)

The tiger is dangerous.

In case of total generalization the reference is made to the totality of the class. The noun is used in the plural (!)

The Italians are good singers.

In these semantic functions the relations of equivalence are expressed.

The functional semantic field (FSF) of definiteness/indefiniteness

Micro-field of Definiteness

The plane of content

The plane of expression

The indefinite reference

Unlike the definite reference the indefinite reference is marked by an indefinite article in the singular and the zero article in the plural.

Actualizer – a

Descriptor – a book

Description is broader

The indefinite reference is realized by the following semantic functions

1) Concrete nomination – to name a concrete object. The situation is characterized by time or place location and the internal semantics of the description are time and place

Then she gave him a letter of invitation

2) Inconcrete nomination – the object is presented as unreal, imaginable, probable. Internal semantics are unreality

I suppose he never received a letter signed this way.

3) Classification – the internal semantics are referring to a class or presenting an opposition

Mary is a doctor (referring to a class)

They are doctors (opposition)

5) Universal generalization – the referent is presented as a typical member of the class and internal semantics are of generalization or comparison

A mad man is a very dangerous thing (generalization)

6) Quazi-total generalization – it shows that reference is made to most bat not to all members of the class, it mans “in general”. The internal semantics are generalization or comparison

Swine like peanuts.