Table 8.1. The Major Divisions of Fungi
| Common Name (Division) | Reproductive Structures | Cellular Characteristics | Economic and Health Impacts | Representative Genera |
| Zygote fungi (Zygomycota) | Produce sexual diploid zygospores | Cell walls contain chitin; septa are absent | Cause soft fruit rot and black bread mold | __________________________________ |
| Sac fungi (___________) | __________________________ | Cell walls contain chitin; septa are present | __________________________________ | Saccharomyces (yeast); Ophiostoma (causes Dutch elm disease) |
| _____________ (Basidiomycota) | Sexual reproduction involves production of haploid basidiospores on club-shaped basidia | Cell walls contain chitin; septa are present | ___________________________________________________ | ___________________________________________________ |
| Imperfect fungi (____________) | __________________________ | Cell walls contain chitin; septa are present | __________________________________ | Penicillium (produces penicillin); Arthrobotrys (nematode predator) |
Although nearly 100,000 species of modern fungi have been described, biologists have only begun to comprehend the diversity of these organisms – at least 1000 additional species are described each year. Like plants, fungi are grouped into divisions, which are comparable to animal phyla. The major divisions of fungi are the Zygomicota (zygote fungi), Ascomycota (sac fungi), Basidiomycota (club fungi), and Deuteromycota (imperfect fungi) (Table 1).
The zygomycetes, also called the zygote fungi, include about 600 species. Familiar – and annoying – zygomycetes are those of the genus Rhizopus, which cause soft fruit and black bread mold. The haploid hyphae of zygomycetes appear identical but are actually two different mating types. The two types “mate sexually”, fusing their nuclei to produce diploid zygospores. These resistant structures are dispersed through the air and can remain dormant until conditions are favorable for growth. Zygospores then undergo meiosis and germinate into structures that bear haploid spores. The spores then give rise to new hyphae. These hyphae may reproduce asexually, by forming haploid spores in black spore cases called sporangia, or sexually, by fusing to produce more zygospores.
The 30,000 species of ascomycetes, also called sac fungi, are named after the saclike case, or ascus (plural, asci), in which their spores form during sexual reproduction. Some ascomycetes live in decaying forest vegetation and form beautiful cup-shaped reproductive structures or corrugated, mushroomlike fruiting bodies called morels. This division also includes many of the colorful molds that attack stored food and destroy fruit and grain crops and other plants. Some ascomycetes secrete the enzymes cellulase and protease, which can cause significant damage to cotton and wool textiles, especially in warm, humid climates where molds flourish. Ascomycetes cause both Dutch elm disease and chestnut blight, but other ascomycetes are a boon to plants, forming mutually beneficial associations with plant roots. A gastronomic delicacy, the truffle, is also a member of this diverse division.
Claviceps purpurea, an ascomycete that attacks rye plants, produce structures called ergots that release several toxins, one of which is the active ingredient in the drug LSD. If infected rye is made into flour and consumed, the toxins can lead to ergot poisoning – convulsions, hallucinations, and ultimately death. This happened frequently in northern Europe in the Middle Ages, but modern agricultural techniques have essentially eliminated the disease. Another Claviceps toxin has medicinal effects if administered in low doses; that toxin is currently used in drugs that induce labor and control hemorrhaging after childbirth.
Among the ascomycetes we also find the yeasts, some of the few unicellular fungi. The yeasts include both the parasitic yeast that is a common cause of vaginal infections and the baker’s and brewer’s yeasts that make possible the proverbial loaf of bread and jug of wine. Some yeasts form hyphae when nutrients are scarce; the hyphae can elongate and reach distant food sources.
Basidiomycetes are called the club fungi because they produce club-shaped reproductive structures. The division Basidiomycetes consists of about 25,000 species, including the familiar mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi, sometimes called monkey-stools. Although several mushrooms species are considered delicacies, mushrooms can be deadly. Some members of the genus Amanita contain potent toxins that are among the most deadly poisons ever found. Basidiomycetes can also be dangerous to plants; they include some devastating plant pests descriptively called rusts and smuts, which cause billions of dollars worth of damage to grain crops annually. Some members of this group, however, enter into mutually beneficial relationship with plants.
Basidiomycetes typically reproduce sexually. Mushrooms and puffballs are actually reproductive structures: dense aggregations of hyphae that emerge under proper conditions from a massive underground mycelium. On the undersides of mushrooms are leaflike gills that produce specialized club-shaped diploid cells called basidia. Basidia give rise to haploid reproductive basidiospores by meiosis. These are released by the billions from the gills of mushrooms or the inner surface of puffballs and are dispersed by wind and water.
Falling on fertile ground, a mushroom basidiospore may germinate and form haploid hyphae of two different mating types. When the two types meet, some of the cells fuse and produce an underground mycelium. These hyphae grow outward from the original spore in a roughly circular pattern as the older hyphae in the center die. The subterranean body periodically sends up numerous mushrooms, which emerge in a ringlike pattern called a fairy ring. The diameter of the fairy ring can reveal the approximate age of the fungus – the wider the ring diameter, the older the mushrooms, and their average rate of growth is known. Some fairy rings are estimated to be 700 years old.
Deuteromycetes are called the imperfect fungi because none have been observed to form sexual reproductive structures. In some species the sexual stage has been lost during evolution; in others it may exist but has not yet been observed. This large division includes about 25,000 described species of great diversity and considerable importance to humans. It was a member of this division that contaminated and killed the bacterial cultures of the microbiologist Alexander Fleming by accident. His keen observations led to the isolation of penicillin, the first antibiotic, from the fungus Penicillium. We also owe to deuteromycetes the indescribable flavor and aroma of Roquefort and Camembert cheeses. Other imperfect fungi are human parasites, causing diseases such as ringworm and athlete’s foot. Some are not content to live on dead organisms or even to parasitize live ones – they act as predators, laying deadly traps for unsuspecting roundworms.
II. What are the terms that correspond to the following definitions?
1 a structure in which spores are produced
2 a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and the roots of a land plant that facilitates mineral extraction and absorption
3 a threadlike structure that consists of elongated cells, typically with many haploid nuclei; makes up a fungus body
4 the body of a fungus, consisting of a mass of hyphae
5 a sexual spore formed by members of the fungal division Basidiomycota
6 a saclike case in which sexual spores are formed by members of the fungal division Ascomycota
Language focus 1
Must: Necessity and Obligation
1 Must is used to say what is necessary, and to give strong advice and ordersto ourselves or other people.
Plants must get enough light and water if they are to grow properly.
I really must stop smoking.
2 We use must not / mustn’t to say that it is wrong to do things, or tell people not to do things.
The government mustn’t expect people to work for no money.
You mustn’t open this parcel until Christmas Day.
3 Mustn’t and needn’t / don’t have to
Mustn’t implies prohibition. This idea of the absence of necessity is expressed by needn’t, don’t need to or don’t have to.
You needn’t work tomorrow if you don’t want to. OR You don’t have to work… (NOT You mustn’t…)…if you don’t want to.
You don’t need to get a visa to go to Scotland. OR You don’t have to get a visa… (NOT You mustn’t get a visa…)
BUT: You mustn’t eat when you are lying on the sofa. (prohibition)
4 Must has no past tense. In the past, had to is used.
I had to cycle three miles to school when I was a child.
My parents had to work very had to build up their business.
I. Match sentences to the rules formulated in Language Focus 1.
1. I must lose some weight.
2. You needn’t worry – he’ll be back in a few minutes.
3. He has to call me tomorrow morning and report on the outcome of the experiment.
4. I don’t have to do all the work myself – my laboratory assistant is very good.
5. You have to be more careful. We need you alive.
6. Must I wear all these clothes? They look horrific.
7. He can’t have eaten all the chocolate on his own!
8. You mustn’t talk unless you’re asked to.
II. Translate into English.
1. Фред не любит вставать рано, но ему приходится, так как занятия в университете начинаются в девять часов.
2. Вы должны отправить посылку немедленно.
3. Он не должен идти в институт завтра.
4. Вам не надо звонить в лабораторию, все образцы уже здесь.
5. Тебе нельзя курить. У тебя слабые легкие, и вообще это вредно.
Language focus 2
Must, Need not to, Do not Have to: Degrees of Certainty
1 Must can be used to say that something is certain or highly probable.
If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must be bigger than C.
I’m in love. – You must be very happy. (about 100% sure)
2 We normally use cannot/can’t to say that something is certainly not the case, because it is logically or practically impossible, or extremely improbable.
She’s not answering the phone. She can’t be at home.
3 Need not / needn’t is used to say that something is not necessarily so; do not have to can also be used. Must not is not used in this sense.
Look at those tracks. That must be a dog. – It needn’t be – it could be a fox. (OR - It doesn’t have to be…) (NOT - It mustn’t be…)
4 Must have done expresses certainty about the past.
We went to Rome last month. – That must have been nice.
Tony’s lights are out. – He must have gone to sleep. (He probably went to sleep.)
If you want to say that something was improbable in the past, use can’t/couldn’t have done.
Sandra failed the test. – She can’t have studied. (She probably didn’t study.)
I. Use a number of the following phrases in dialogues of your own.
- He can’t have eaten all the samples!
- It doesn’t have to be a man, an animal is enough.
- You needn’t try, you’ll never do that.
- It must be a dreadful thing to see.
- I must have left my purse somewhere between London and Glasgow!
II. Translate into English.
1. Джон опаздывал в офис: поезда долго не было. Должно быть, водители объявили забастовку.
2. - Вы впервые летите «Аэрофлотом»? Вам не нужно волноваться, пилоты очень опытные.
3. Мы не должны были менять нашу квартиру на загородный дом. Дорога на работу стала значительно длиннее.
4. Мы сделали все покупки в прошлые выходные, так что нам не нужно было ходить в магазин в течение недели.
5. Ты читаешь книгу уже четыре часа. Должно быть, она очень интересная.
Language focus 3
Must and Have to
1 To talk about an obligation that comes from ‘outside’ (for instance a regulation, or an order from somebody else), we usually prefer have to. Compare:
- I must do some more work; I want to pass my exam.
In my job I have to work from nine to five.
- I must stop smoking. (I want to.)
I have to stop smoking. (Doctor’s order.)
- Must you wear dirty old jeans all the time? (Is it personally important for you?)
Do you have to wear a tie at work? (Is there a regulation?)
2 Talking about the past: had to and must have.
In the past, instead of must implying obligation, we use had to. Compare:
Edna isn’t in her office. She had to go home. (= It was necessary for her to go home.)
Edna isn’t in her office. She must have gone home. (= It seems certain that she has gone home.)
I. Write sentences including these Expressions (use one expression in one sentence):
… have to drink …
… must pull the cord …
… must have dropped …
… had to be brave …
… must have a good …
II. Translate into English.
1. Должно быть, я оставила зонтик в метро. Его нигде нет!
2. Майкл очень способный человек, ему необходимо продолжать образование.
3. Каждый президент США должен приносить присягу (to swear an oath) на Библии.
4. Вам когда-либо приходилось общаться с господином Х.?
5. Сегодня вы должны сделать доклад.
Language focus 4
Be to
1 We use be to in a formal style to talk about official and other plans and arrangements.
The President is to visit Spain next month.
We are to get a 10 per cent scholarship rise in June.
The past form of be to is used to say about an action which was planned in the past.
The data were to be collected for my research.
Was/were to have done can be used to show that a planned event did not happen.
I was to have started the experiment last week, but I had to postpone it.
2 If + smb. + be to: something must happen first, and only then a thing we want will happen.
If we are to get there by lunchtime we should hurry.
He knew he would have to work hard if he was to pass his exam.
3 The structure is used to give orders, often by parents speaking to children.
You are to do your homework before you watch TV.
She can go to the party, but she is not to be back late.
I. Translate into English.
1. Поезд должен прийти вовремя.
2. Вы не должны покидать школу без моего разрешения
3. Лекарство нужно принимать после еды
4. Я должен был послать ему письмо.
5. Они должны были встретить нас (но не встретили).
6. Чтобы выиграть золото на следующих Олимпийских играх, Джону нужно будет вначале улучшить технику.
7. Чтобы справедливость могла восторжествовать, нужно прежде изменить законы.
Grammar Review
I. Fill in the blanks with must or can’t.
1. You’ve been working all day. You ……….. be very tired.
2. That café ……….. be very good. It’s always full of people.
3. That cafe ……….. be very good. It’s always empty.
4. It rained every day during her vacations, so she ……….. have had a very good time.
5. Sam got here very quickly. He ……….. have walked very fast.
6. My family go away on holiday very often, so they ……….. be short of money.
II. Read the situation and use the words in brackets to write sentences with must have and can’t have.
1. The bag you bought is very good quality. (it/very expensive)
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. I haven’t seen one of my mates for ages. (he/go away)
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. I can’t find my passport. (I/leave/somewhere)
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Mary passed the exam without studying for it. (the exam/very difficult)
………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Simon did the opposite of what I asked him to do. (he/understand/what I said)
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. I was woken up in the middle of the night by the noise next door. (the neighbours/have/a party)
………………………………………………………………………………………
III. Complete the sentences with mustn’t or don’t/doesn’t have to.
1. I ……….. eat too much. I’m supposed to be on a diet.
2. Don’t make so much noise. We ……….. wake the baby.
3. John can stay in bed tomorrow morning because he ……….. go to work.
4. You ……….. forget what I told you. It’s very important.
5. I don’t want anyone to know. You ……….. tell anyone.
6. Whatever you do, you ……….. touch that switch. It’s very dangerous.
IV. Complete the sentences with must, mustn’t or needn’t.
1. George gave me a letter to post. I ……….. remember to post it.
2. George gave me a letter to post. I ……….. forget to post it.
3. I’ve got plenty of time. I ……….. hurry.
4. I haven’t got much time. I ……….. hurry.
5. This is a valuable book. You ……….. look after it carefully and you ……….. lose it.
6. You ……….. double-check it. I’ve already done it.
V. Write two sentences for each situation. Use needn’t have in the first sentence and could have in the second.
1. Why did you keep silent? Why didn’t you say anything to prove your innocence?
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Why did you stay in a hotel? Why didn’t you stay with us?
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Why did he call me in the middle of the night? Why didn’t he call me in the morning?
………………………………………………………………………………………
Words, Words, Words
I. Using the words given, tell the class about lichens.
symbiotic relationship normally ascomycetes fungus
unicellular green algae cyanobacteria newly formed volcanic islands the first living things to colonize from the deserts to the Arctic slow rate of growth
attachments anchor to a surface a layered structure algal layer fungal hyphae
II. Complete the text with the correct option A-C.
Mycorrhizae are Fungi Associated with the Roots of Many Plants
Mycorrhizae (sg., mycorrhiza) are important (1) ______ associations between fungi and plant roots. Over 5000 species of mycorrhizal fungi (mostly basidiomycetes) are known to grow in intimate (2) ______ with the roots of about 80% of all plants that have (3) ______, including most trees. These associations (4) ______ both the plant and its fungal partner. The (5) ______ of mycorrhizal fungi surround the plant root and commonly invade the root cells. The fungus digests and absorbs minerals and organic nutrients from the soil, passing some of them directly into the root cells. The fungus also absorbs water and passes it to the plant – an advantage in dry, sandy soils. In return, sugar produced photosynthetically by the plant is passed from the root to the fungus. Plants that participate in this unique relationship, especially those in poor soils, tend (6) ______ and more vigorously than do those deprived of the fungus. (7) ______ new data suggest that mycorrhizae and other types of fungi may be undergoing a (8) ______ decline that could threaten the health of forests and the communities of plants and animals that rely on them.
Some scientists believe that mycorrhizal associations may have been important in the invasion of land by plants more than 400 million years ago. Such a relationship between an aquatic fungus and a green alga ((9) ______ to terrestrial plants) could have helped the alga (10) ______ the water and mineral nutrients it needed to survive out of water.
| A symbolic | B symbiotic | C symptomatic | |
| A association | B assortment | C assimilation | |
| A stems | B branches | C roots | |
| A benefit | B do harm | C destroy | |
| A hyphal | B hyphen | C hyphae | |
| A to grow larger | B to grow together | C to grow lean | |
| A Exciting | B Encouraging | C Disturbing | |
| A tragic | B dramatic | C bad | |
| A ancestral | B predecessor | C ancestor | |
| A require | B quire | C acquire |
Render in English.
Лишайники
Лишайник представляет собой не один организм, а состоит из гриба и одноклеточной водоросли или цианобактерии, связанных тесными и взаимовыгодными отношениями, известными под названием мутуалистических. (Мутуализм часто рассматривают как одну из разновидностей симбиоза – буквально «совместная жизнь»; этим термином обозначают тесную взаимосвязь между двумя видами.) Фотосинтезирующий партнер образует пищу как для себя, так и для гриба; а гриб, как полагают, обеспечивает снабжение водой и минеральными веществами. Лишайники весьма живописны, напоминая мазки густой краски, небольшие кустики или изогнутые листья.
Растут лишайники очень медленно, однако они могут существовать во многих местах, где не живут никакие другие фотосинтезирующие растения: на голых скалах, на холодных горных вершинах, в тундре; здесь они подчас оказываются единственной пищей, доступной животным. Однако при загрязнении воздуха лишайники быстро погибают, поэтому состояние лишайников в данной местности может служить показателем качества ее воздуха.
Лишайникам находят и другие довольно необычные применения. Археологи определяли возраст загадочных каменных голов, обнаруженных на острове Пасхи, измеряя размеры растущих на них лишайников. А получаемые из лишайников красители используются для окраски одного из типов твида.
Unit 10
The Evolution of Hormones
Introduction
I. In pairs check the Russian translation of the words and phrases below.
peptides amino-acid derivatives
steroids prostaglandins
target cells bind to receptors intracellular second messengers
cyclic AMP diffuse through the plasma membranes
the hormone-receptor complex the transcription of specific genes.
thyroid hormones negative feedback
to inhibit further secretion of hormone the mammalian endocrine system
clusters of cells a network of capillaries
the thyroid and parathyroid glands the pancreas
the adrenal glands the pineal gland
thymus the hypothalamus – pituitary complex
Now listen to the summary of key concepts concerning the endocrine system of the animal body, make notes and get ready to retell it.
II. Give your own definitions to the following words. Read the definitions to your partner. Can he/she guess the word defined?
amino acid
blood
cyclic AMP
hormone
kidney
pineal [¢pınıəl] gland
small intestine
target cell
thyroid [¢Өaıro:ıd] gland
III. In the USA some parents who are interested in college sports scholarships for their children are asking physicians to prescribe growth hormone treatments. Farmers also have an economic incentive to treat cows with growth hormone, which can now be produced in large quantities by genetic-engineering techniques. What biological and ethical problems do you foresee for parents, children, physicians, coaches, college scholarship boards, food consumers, farmers, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, and biotechnology companies?
Reading
I. Look through the text. Put all the paragraphs in order.
| A B C D E | The Evolution of Hormones Thyroxine regulates the seasonal molting of most vertebrates. From snakes to birds to the family dog, surges of thyroxine stimulate the shedding of skin, feathers, or hair. In humans (who neither migrate regularly, metamorphose, nor molt), thyroxine regulates growth and metabolism. The use of chemicals to regulate cellular activity is extremely ancient. The diversity of life on Earth rests upon a conservative foundation: a relative handful of chemicals coordinate activities within single cells and among groups of cells. Life’s diversity originated in part by changing the systems used to deliver the chemicals and by evolving new types of responses. Early in their evolution, animals developed a complemented to hormonal communication that provides faster, more precise delivery of chemical messages: the nervous system. The nervous system permits rapid responses to environment stimuli, flexibility in response options, and ultimately consciousness itself. Not long ago, vertebrate endocrine systems were considered unique to our phylum, and the endocrine chemicals were thought to have evolved expressly for their role in vertebrate physiology. In recent years, however, physiologists have discovered that hormones are evolutionarily ancient. Insulin, for example, is found not only in vertebrates but also in protists, fungi, and bacteria, although research has not yet determined the function of insulin in most of those organisms. Protists also manufacture ACTH, even though they have no adrenal glands to stimulate. Yeasts have receptors for estrogen but no ovaries. Thyroid hormones have been found in certain invertebrates, such as worms, insects, and mollusks, as well as in vertebrates. Even among vertebrates, the effects of chemically identical hormones, secreted by the same glands, may vary dramatically from organism to organism. Let’s look briefly at the diverse effects that the thyroid hormone thyroxine has on several different organisms. In amphibians, thyroxine has the dramatic effect of triggering metamorphosis. In 1912, in one of the first demonstrations of the action of any hormone, the tadpoles were fed minced horse thyroid. As a result, the tadpoles metamorphosed prematurely into miniature adult frogs. In high mountain lakes in Mexico, where the water is deficient in the iodine needed to synthesize thyroxine, natural selection has produced one species of salamander that has the ability to reproduce while still in its juvenile form. Some fish undergo radical physiological changes during their lifetimes. A salmon, for example, begins life in fresh water, migrates to the ocean, and returns to fresh water to spawn. In the stream where the salmon hatched, fresh water tends to enter the fish’s tissues by osmosis; in salt water, the fish tends to lose water, becoming dehydrated. The salmon’s migrations, therefore, require complete revamping of salt and water control. In salmon, one of the functions of thyroxine is to produce the metabolic changes necessary to go from life in streams to life in the ocean and back. |
II. Give a summary in writing of the final version of the text.
Language focus 1
Should: Obligation, Degrees of Certainty
1 We often use should to talk about obligation, duty and similar ideas. It is less strong than must.
Everybody should wear car seat belts.
Applications should be sent before December 30th.
In questions, should is used to ask for advice or instructions:
Should I go and see the police, do you think?
What should we do?
2 We can use should to say that we know something is probable (because it is logical or normal in the circumstances).
She’s away but she should be back tomorrow. (= I have good reasons to believe that she will be back tomorrow.)
We’re spending the winter in Florida. – That should be nice. (It is about 70% likely.)
3 should have done
It can be used to talk about past events which did not happen, but which were planned or supposed to happen. It is also used to express criticism. (Someone didn’t do it but it would have been the right thing to do.)
I should have phoned Ed this morning, but I forgot.
Ten o’clock: she should have arrived in the office by now.
I. Translate into English.
1. Сейчас весна. Все должны принимать витамины.
2. Результаты будут готовы к вечеру.
3. Нам не стоило уезжать в отпуск, пока эксперимент не закончен.
4. Мне стоит сесть на диету?
5. Тебе следовало позаботиться об этом заранее!
Language focus 2
Should, Ought to, Must
1 Should and ought to are very similar: they are both used to talk about obligation and duty, to give advice; also, ought to, like should, is used to talk about probability. Should is much more frequent than ought to.
You should / ought to see ‘Daughter of the Moon’ – it’s a great film. (advice)
I’ve bought three loaves – that should / ought to be enough. (The speaker is 70% sure.)
Ought is always used with to:
You ought see this film. – This is INCORRECT.
2 Must is stronger than should/ought to.
Must has similar meanings to should and ought, but is stronger or more definite. It expresses greater confidence that something will happen, or that something is true; should and ought to express less confidence. Compare:
- The doctor said I must give up smoking. (An order which the patient most probably will obey.)
You really ought to give up smoking. (A piece of advice which may or may not be followed.)
- Rob must be at home by now. (= I’m sure he is at home.)
Rob should be at home by now. (= I think he is probably at home.)
Should can be used instead of must to make instructions more polite.
This form should be filled in ink.
3 Should have done and ought to have done can be used to talk about unfulfilled obligations in the past. Must is not used like this.
You ought to/ should have been nicer to Annie. (BUT NOT You must have been nicer to Annie.)
I. Translate into English.
1. Тебе не следовало разговаривать с ней таким тоном.
2. При обнаружении бесхозных вещей обратитесь к водителю.
3. Эксперимент должен быть завершен к апрелю.
4. К опыту нужно готовиться более тщательно.
5. Если ты встретишь Ника, тебе стоит пригласить его в клуб.
II. Use the following word combinations in situations of your own.
1. It shouldn’t be difficult to…
2. … so she should pass.
3. You should have come. Why… ?
4. … . I shouldn’t have eaten so much….
5. Do you think I ought to …
6. “Should we… ?” – “Yes, I think we should”.
7. The government should…
8. You look tired. You should…
Words, Words, Words
I. Think through the topic of the unit and choose the right answer.
1 Steroid hormones
a. alter the activity of genes
b. trigger rapid, short-term responses in cells
c. work via second messengers
d. initiate open channels in plasma membranes
e. bind to cell-surface receptors
2 Examples of posterior pituitary hormones are
a. FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)
b. prolactin and parathormone
c. secretin and cholecystokinin
d. melatonin and prostaglandin
e. ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin
3 Negative feedback to the hypothalamus controls the level of _____________ in the blood.
a. thyroxine
b. estrogen
c. glucocorticoids d. insulin
e. all of the above
4 The primary targets for FSH are cells in the
a. hypothalamus
b. ovary
c. thyroid gland
d. adrenal medulla
e. pituitary gland
5 The kidney is a source of
a. thyroxine and parathormone
b. calcitonin and oxytocin
c. renin and erythropoietin
d. ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) and epinephrine
e. glucagon and glucocorticoids
6 Hormones that are produced by many different body cells and cause a variety of localized effects are known as
a. peptide hormones
b. parathormones
c. releasing hormones
d. prostaglandins
e. exocrine hormones
II. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B and translate them into Russian.
| A 1homeostasis 2 salivary gland 3 pituitary gland 4 retina 5 endocrine gland 6 hypothalamus 7 negative feedback | B a a multilayered sheet of nerve tissue at the rear of camera-type eyes, composed of photoreceptor cells plus associated nerve cells that refine the photoreceptor information and transmit it to the optic nerve b a situation in which a change initiates a series of events that tend to counteract the change and restore the original state. Negative feedback in physiological systems maintains homeostasis c a ductless, hormone-producing gland consisting of cells that release their secretions into the extracellular fluid from which the secretions diffuse into nearby capillaries d an exocrine gland that releases saliva into the mouth e a region of the brain that controls the secretory activity of the pituitary gland; synthesizes, stores, and releases certain peptide hormones; directs autonomous nervous responses fan endocrine gland, located at the base of the brain, that produces several hormones, many of which influence the activity of other glands g the maintenance of a relatively constant environment required for the optimal functioning of cells, maintained by the coordinated activity of numerous regulatory mechanisms, including the respiratory, endocrine, circulatory, and excretory systems |
Language focus 3
Other Uses of Should
1 It’s important that… should…
In formal British English, should can be used after: It is important (necessary, vital, essential) that…
It’s important that somebody should talk to the police.
Is it necessary that my uncle should be informed?
This also happens after some verbs expressing similar ideas of importance of an action, especially in sentences about the past.
He insisted that the contract should be read aloud.
I demanded that he should apologize.
In a less formal style, other structures are preferred.
It’s important that she talks to me when she gets here.
Was it necessary to tell my uncle?
2 After the verb to suggest three constructions are possible:
I suggest that you should stop the experiment.
I suggest that you stop (he stop, we stop) the experiment.
I suggest that he stops the experiment.
I. Translate into English.
1. Преподаватель рекомендовал, чтобы студенты прочитали дополнительно два источника.
2. Я предлагаю, чтобы вы тоже участвовали в исследовании.
3. Важно, чтобы все красители соответствовали нормативам.
4. Желательно, чтобы ученый совет (Science Board) настаивал на продолжении эксперимента в течение следующего семестра.
5. Странно, что ты пьешь так много кофе вечером.
II. Write a sentence that means the same as the first sentence.
1. ‘I think it would be a good idea to do some more exercises,’ the teacher said to us.
The teacher said that ………………………………………………………………
2. ‘You really must pay more attention to the accuracy of your calculations,’ she said to me.
She insisted that …………………………………………………………………...
3. ‘Why don’t you eat your apple after the lesson?’ I said to him.
I suggested that ……………………………………………………………….……
4. ‘You must complete your term paper by March,’ my scientific supervisor said to me.
The scientific supervisor demanded that …………………………………………..
III. Are these sentences correct or incorrect?
1 a Mary suggested that I should look for another job. C / I
b Mary suggested that I look for another job. C / I
c Mary suggested that I looked for another job. C / I
d Mary suggested me to look for another job. C / I
2 a When do you suggest I go on a business trip? C / I
b When do you suggest me to go on a business trip? C / I
c When do you suggest I should go on a business trip? C / I
Render in English.
Железы как эффекторные органы
Секрет слюнных, слезных и многих других желез проходит (часто по специальным протокам) очень короткий путь от места образования до места действия. В отличие от этого гормоны, синтезирующиеся в лишенных протоков эндокринных железах, разносятся с током крови часто в самые отдаленные уголки организма.
Гормональная регуляция различных процессов в организме служит дополнением к нервной. Вообще говоря, нервные импульсы вызывают ответы значительно быстрее, чем гормоны, но эндокринные влияния более длительны и всеобъемлющи.
Гормоны позволяют организму реагировать на изменения внешней и внутренней среды. Некоторые гормоны регулируют постоянство состава жидких сред организма. Для того чтобы подобные гомеостатические механизмы функционировали нормально, гормоны должны поступать в кровь только тогда, когда в них возникает необходимость. Секреция таких гормонов регулируется по принципу отрицательной обратной связи, то есть является процессом, который автоматически ограничивает собственное развитие.
Но секреция гормонов может происходить и в ответ на изменения во внешней среде. Многие животные, например, маскируются, изменяя свою окраску в зависимости от фона. Этот процесс связан с изменением размеров хроматофоров – клеток кожи, содержащих различные пигменты; в результате меняется цвет и характер окраски всего животного. У некоторых рыб, амфибий и рептилий характер световых стимулов, достигающих сетчатки, контролирует выброс гипофизом меланоцитстимулирующего гормона, а этот гормон, в свою очередь, вызывает изменение размеров хроматофоров.
Каким же образом органы чувств, реагирующие на изменения внешней среды, связаны с железами внутренней секреции, например, с гипофизом? В качестве посредника в данном случае выступает нервная система, собирающая информацию от органов чувств и передающая ее в жизненно важную область мозга – гипоталамус. Группы клеток гипоталамуса обусловливают ответы на такие ощущения, как боль, удовольствие, чувство голода или жажды и сексуальную потребность. Гипоталамус связан с другими участками нервной системы, а также с гипофизом – важнейшей эндокринной железой, в которой синтезируется множество гормонов. Каждый из этих гипофизарных гормонов вызывает изменения в деятельности одного или нескольких органов.
Unit 11
The Immune Response
Introduction
I. What are the key characteristics of the immune response? Listen to the text and say whether the following sentences are true or false.
1. The Greek physician Thucydides [Өju:saı¢dıdıs] recognized the essential features of the immune response to the infection more than 2000 years ago. T / F
2. Immunity to one disease always confers no protection against other diseases. T / F
3. We refer to the immune response as a specific defense against invasion. T / F
4. Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood. T / F
5. T cells and B cells play similar roles in the immune response. T / F
II. Use the following pairs of words in sentences of your own, compose 2-3 sentences with each of the pairs. Ask your partner to translate them into Russian.
invasion – prevent defenses – impregnable
response – mount protection – confer
immune – become lymphocytes – clustered
bloodstream - released
III. Working in small groups fill in the Table 10.1.