Adverbial clauses of result.
Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree. Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunction so that; they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma. Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were nearly deserted.
Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction (Обставини результаne з додатковим значенням ступеня вводяться сполучником) that; in these cases we find the adverb soof the demonstrative pronoun such in the principal clause.
He is soweak physically that he can hardly move. (Shaw) Tom was in ecstasies — in suchecstasiesthat he even controlled his tongue and was silent.
56. The Composite sentence. Structural classification of the composite sentence.
Unlike a simple sentence that consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses, a composite sentence is built up by two or more predicative lines.
It can be defined as a structural and semantic unity of two or more syntactic constructions each having a predicative center of its own, built on the basis of a syntactic connection and used in speech communication as a unit of the same rank as the simple sentence.
Вона може бути визначена як структурна і семантична єдність двох або більше синтаксичних конструкцій, кожна з яких маэ власний присудковий центр, побудований на основі синтаксичного зв'язку і використовується в мовної комунікації як одиниця того ж рангу, як просте речення.
The following characteristics should be kept in mind when discussing composite sentences:
- the type of syntactic connection (coordination or subordination); вид звязку
- the rank of predicative constructions, that is, the place occupied by the predicative construction in the hierarchy of clauses; місце що займає присудкова конструкція
- presence or absence of connectors and their character. Наявність або відсутність зв'язку і їх характер.
A general classification of composite sentences can be based on the first two criteria
– the type of syntactic connection and the rank of predicative constructions.
Here compound and complex sentences are singled out.
In the compound sentence predicative constructions of the high rank are connected by means of coordination ------------while in the complex sentence – by means of subordination.
According to the way in which parts of the composite sentence are joined together, two types can be singled out:
1) syndetic (by means of connectors); зі сполучниками
2) asyndetic (without any connectors). без
The connector can either be a conjunction, a pronoun or an adverb.
If it is a conjunction, its function in the sentence is to join the clauses together.
If it is a pronoun or an adverb (i. e. a relative pronoun or a relative adverb), then it serves as
a part of one of the two clauses which are joined (a subject, object, adverbial modifier, etc.), and also joins the two clauses together.
There can be disputable cases when it is not quite clear a composite sentence is syndetic or asyndetic. It depends on the way we view a particular word. e.g. The one thing she seems to aim at is Individuality; yet she cares nothing for individuals.
The second clause of the composite sentence opens with the word yet, so we may say that it is an adverb and the connection is asyndetic, or else, that it is a conjunction and the connection is syndetic.
57. The Composite sentence. Nominal clauses.
Composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative groups. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses a complicated thought reflecting two or more elementary situational events. він висловлює складну думку, яку відображатимуть дві або більше елементарні одномоментні події.
Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it that corresponds to a separate sentence as a part of a contextual sequence.
Composite sentence displays two principal types of the connection of clauses — subordination and coordination.
According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be classed into:
· compound sentences (coordinating their clauses),
· complex (subordinating their clauses).
A compound sentenceis a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:
1) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.)
E.g.The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.
2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.
E.g. The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinativety are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, casual, consequental, resultative.
A complex sentenceis a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:
1) Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.
E.g. more and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul.
2) Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.
E.g. I wish you had come earlier.
A subordinate clause may follow, interrupt or precede the principal clause.
According to the grammatical function subordinate clauses can be divided into: subject, predicative, object and adverbial (of time, place, purpose, cause, condition, concession, result, manner, comparison)
A clause is a part of a sentence. There are two main types: independent (main clauses), dependent (subordinate clauses).
Dependent clauses can be nominal, adverbial or adjectival.
A nominal clause (noun clause) functions like a noun or noun phrase. It is a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb of its own and contains one of the following: that | if | whether. A nominal clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a noun phrase.
I wonderedwhetherthe homework was necessary.
Noun clauses answer questions like "who(m)?" or "what?"
- I know that he is here.
- From where I stood, I saw the horse.
I like what I see.
I know that the tide is turning.
I've met the man who won the lottery.
(Not all agree this is a noun clause. See Note on the right.)
Like any noun, a noun clause can be a subject, an object, or a complement.
In a sentence, a noun clause will be a dependent clause. In other words, a noun clause does not stand alone as a complete thought.
A person who trusts no one can't be trusted. (Jerome Blattner)
(This noun clause is the subject of the sentence.)
Ask your child what he wants for dinner only if he's buying. (Fran Lebowitz)
58. The Composite sentence. Adverbial clauses.
An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. Прислівниковий клаус виконує функцію обставини. Він може модифікувати дієслово, прикметник або прислівник в головній частині.
He stopped as Kravat came rushing out. (Heym)
He was getting on better than he'd expected. (Lindsay)
Frank … returned to the auction room as fast as his legs would carry him. (Dreiser)
According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison.
Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except sometimes adverbial clauses of condition.
An adverbial clause may precede the clause to which it is subordinated or follow it. In the first case it is separated from "the principal clause by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used. An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it. An adverbial clause може передувати clause, до якого він підлеглий або за яким слідує. У першому випадку він відокремлений від "головнї частини комою, у другому, як правило, кома не використовується. Прислівниковий пункт може також перервати основний пункт, в цьому випадку кома використовується на початку і в кінці його.
When things are at the worst, they're sure to mend. (Collins)
He was sipping the whisky and soda when she returned. (Cronin)
The first words, when we had taken our seats, were spoken by my lady. (Collins)
If we have two or more homogeneous adverbial clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.
He (Oliver) was still the same gentle, attached, affectionate creature that he had been when pain and suffering had wasted his strength, and when he was dependent for every slight attention and comfort on thosewho tended him. (Dickens)
59. The Compound sentence. Types of coordination.
A compoundsentence is a sentence which consists of 2 or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clauseis part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.
In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:
(a)syndetically, i. e. by means of coordinating conjunctions(and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs(otherwise, however, -nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.).
The darkness was thinning, butthe street was still dimly lighted. (Lindsay)
He knew there were excuses for his father, yethe felt sick at heart. (Cronin)
(b)asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.
The rain fell softly, the house was quiet. (Collins)
The month was July, the morning dine, the glass-door stood ajar, through it played a fresh breeze… (Ch. Bronte)
He uttered no other words of greeting; there was too strong a rush of mutual consciousness.
Types of coordination
We can distinguish' the following types of coordination:
1.Copulative coordination(соединительная связь), expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither .. nor, not only .. but (also). With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another.
It was a nice little place andMr. and Mrs. Witla were rather proud of it. (Dreiser)
Mr. Home did not lift his eyes from his breakfast-plate for about two minutes, nordid he speak.
Not onlydid he speak more correctly, buthe spoke more easily, and there were many new words in his vocabulary. (London)
2.Disjunctive coordination(разделительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either.. or, and the conjunctive adverb otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statementsexpressed in two clauses.
He knew it to be nonsense orit would have frightened him. (Galsworthy)
Don't come near me with that look else I'll knock you down. (Eliot)
.. don't fret, and don't expect too much of him,orelsehe will feel you to be troublesome..
.. either our union must be consecrated and sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. (Ch. Bronte)
A painter has to be forbidding, Dad, otherwise people would think he was cadging. (Galsworthy)
3. Adversative coordination(противительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions but, while,1 whereas and the conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, still, yet.These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning. з'єднує два положення контрастні за змістом
The room was dark, butthe street was lighter because of its lamps. (Dickens)
He had a glass eye which remained stationary, whilethe other eye looked at Reinhardt. (Heym)
The old school-room was now a sitting room.. whereas one of the old nurseries was now the modern school-room. (Trollope)
I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yetI wept. (Ch. Bronte)
4.Causative-consecutive coordination(причинно-следственная связь) expressed by the conjunctions for, so and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence.
For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. Therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly introduce coordinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.
There was something amiss with Mr. Lightwood, forhe was strangely grave and looked ill.
After all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, so talk was easy and happy between them. (Priestley)
Hers (Lillian's) was not a soul that ever loved passionately, hence she could not suffer passionately. (Dreiser)
N o t e.— There are cases when the conjunction for expresses relations approaching those of subordination, i. e. when it introduces a clause showing the reason of the action expressed in the preceding clause. In these cases the conjunctionfor is very close in meaning to the conjunctionbecause.
She (Lillian) was not helpless, forshe had money of her own. (Dreiser)
But even here for is not a subordinating conjunction, as the connection between the clause it introduces and the preceding clause is loose: a certain fact is stated and then, as it were on second thought, another statement with a causal meaning is added.
60. The Complex sentence. Attributive clauses.
A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
N o t e . — This definition is true, however, only in a general sense. In an exact sense there is often no principal clause; this is the case with complex sentences containing a subject clause or a predicative clause.
Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:
1. Syndetically, i. e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.
There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction only serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.
More and more, she became convinced thatsome misfortune had overtaken Paul. (Cronin) (CONJUNCTION)
All thathe had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. (Cronin) (CONNECTIVE)
2.Asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or connective.
I wish you had come earlier. (Heym)
Circumstances try the metal a man is really made of. (Collins)
A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principal clause. Придаткове речення може випливати, передувати або перервати основний клаус.
His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel. (Cronin)
As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined alone together. (Dickens)
It was dull and dreary enough, when the long summer evening closed in, on that Saturday night.