Theme II.4. The Structural parts of speech.
The Preposition.
§ 1.The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. Usually the preposition is not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.
Desert moved quickly to the windows.
Sometimes, however, a preposition may be separated from the word it refers to and placed at the end of the sentence or clause. In that case it is stressed.
But he sounds as though he knows what he’s talking about .
§ 2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
(1) simple (in, on, at, for, with, etc.);
(2) derivative (behind, below, across, along, etc.);
(3) compound (inside, outside, within, without, etc.);
(4) composite (because of, in front of, in accordance with, etc.).
§ 3. According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into prepositions of place and direction (in, on, below, under, between, etc.), time (after, before, at, etc.), prepositions expressing abstract relations (отвлеченные отношения) (by, with, because of, with a view to, etc.).
§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
For instance, the prepositions after and before are homonymous with the adverbs after and before and with the conjunctions after and before.
There is an old saying that if a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had better not fall in love after. (ADVERB)
When he got back to Ann Arbor, he found Savina in a state off excitement because Trasker had heard from Regan after Erik had left. (CONJUNCTION)
“Where do you intend to stay tonight?” she asked after a moment. (PREPOSITION)
§ 5. Softie prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.
A preposition as well as a postposition does not perform any independent function in the sentence. But while a preposition denotes the relation between objects and phenomena, a postposition is part of a composite verb.
A preposition is not usually stressed, while a postposition usually bears the stress.
We’ve got to live on what we earn. (PREPOSITION)
He liked Erik more than any of the assistants the department had taken on in a long time, as much as he could like one of the younger men. (POSTPOSITION)
The Conjunction.
§ 6. The conjunction is a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.
§ 7. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:
(1) simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.).
(2) derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.).
(3) compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.).
(4) composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.).
Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both ... and, either ... or, not only ... but (also), neither ... nor, whether ... or.
§ 8. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes:
(1) coordinating conjunctions;
(2) subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).
(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, but he simply couldn’t anymore; and crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. (Galsworthy)
(b) He opened his eyes and stared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson)
(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right and that other human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they. (London)
(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Haviland apologized for his mistake. But he was not as impressed as Erik had wanted him to be. (Wilson)
Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).
(a) When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)
(b) He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permitted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)
(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she spoke with extreme, though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)
§ 9. Coordinating conjunctions.
The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the relations they express. Thus the classes of coordinating conjunction according to their meaning correspond to different types of compound sentences.
There are four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions.
1. Copulative conjunctions: and, nor, as well as, both ... and, not only ... but (also), neither ... nor. Copulative conjunctions chiefly denote that one statement or fact is simply added to another (nor and neither express that relation in the negative sense).
There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower, and in the sky the blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds. (Qalsworthy)
2. Disjunctive conjunctions: or, either... or, or else, else.
Disjunctive conjunctions offer some choice between one statement and another.
The majority of the inhabitants had escaped, I suppose, by way of the Old Worning road, or they had hidden. (Wells)
3. Adversative conjunctions: but, while, whereas.
Adversative conjunctions show that one statement or fact is contrasted with or set against another.
Fabermacher nodded in agreement, but his eyes glittered with silent triumph and contempt for the victory. (Wilson)
4. Causative-consecutive conjunctions: so, for. Causative-consecutive conjunctions denote consequence, result, or reason. By these conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or roved from another.
He had gone some miles away, and was not expected home until late at night; so the landlady dispatched the same messenger in all haste for Mr. Pecksniff. (Dickens)
§ 10. Subordinating conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions may introduce subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses, adverbial clauses, and attributive clauses.
That Ruth had little faith in his power as a writer did not alter her nor diminish her in Martin’s eyes. (London) (SUBJECT CLAUSE)
What I mean is that you’re the first man I ever met who’s willing to admit out loud to a woman that he thinks she’s better than he is. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
He looked to the south and knew that somewhere beyond those blue hills lay the Great Bear Lake. (London) (OBJECT CLAUSE)
He walked into the Green Park that he might cross to Victoria Station and take the Underground into the City. (Galsworthy)(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE)
Subordinating conjunctions may also be used in simple sentences. They join adverbial modifiers to the predicate of the sentence. Conjunctions of comparison, such as, as if, as though are frequently used in simple sentences.
He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said... (Ch. Bronte)
The Particle.
§ 11.The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particles), particles have no independent function in the sentence.
§ 12. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
1. Limiting particles: only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely, etc.
I only wanted to make you speak. (Shaw)
They were spreading not merely on the surface, but within.(Galsworthy)
2. Intensifying particles: simply, still, just, yet, all, but, only, .quite, even, etc.
He made plans to renew this time in places still more delightful. (Qalsworthy)
He just did dislike him. (Qalsworthy)
3. Connecting particles: too, also.
Pickering comes in. He also takes off his hat and overcoat (Shaw)
He (James) was silent. Soames, too, was silent. (Galsworthy)
4. Negative particles: not, never.
No, he was not afraid of that. (Qalsworthy)
Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only.
That’s just his way of talking. (Dreiser) (LIMITING PARTICLE)
Why, I think, that’s a terrible price to ask for it, just awful.(Dreiser) (INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)
Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs (simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), and adjectives (only). The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms.
Theme II.4. Exercises.
Ex. 1. Fill in the blanks. Use beside or besides.
1. Who’s the pretty blonde sitting… Keith? 2. … languages, we have to
study literature and history. 3. Who was at the theatre …Anne and John? 4. I don’t
like this dress; … , it’s too expensive. 5. “Perhaps you’ll be lucky this time,” he said as he settled himself … her in the car. 6. It’s too late to go out, and …, you
haven’t done your work. 7. … the apple-tree we’ve got a few very tall pear-trees in our garden. 8.1 don’t feel like going anywhere. …, it’s starting to rain. 9. Don’t
stand…that wall - it doesn’t look safe. 10. I don’t like him; he is careless and lazy,
and… he is impatient.
Ex. 2. Supply suitable preposition: across, over, through.
1. There was a small shop…the road. 2. The Greenpeace is against a pipeline… Alaska. 3. The river is too broad, you can’t swim…it. 4. We ran…the field.
5. The pipe is clogged, nothing can flow…it. 6. On my way to the office I walked… the park every day. 7. Will you row me…the lake? 8. The river Thames flows …London. 9. While thinking it over he draw a line…the sheet of paper. 10. He has traveled … Europe. 11. He was looking… a telescope.
12. She spoke to me… her shoulder. 13. She passed a comb … her hair.
14. There is a new bridge… the river. 15. The road goes …the forest.
16. I looked …the hedge but saw nobody. 17. He is famous all… the world.