B) Correct the sentences if necessary. Tick any which are already correct.

1 There's the woman who she sold me the oranges.

2 This is my brother, who's wife's French.

3 Did you ever meet the model who's married Jeff’s cousin?

4 I don't like people which talk too loudly.

5 That's the car whose brakes are being repaired.

6 I know a little tavern at where you can get a wonderful meal.

7 Do you understand what he said?

8 I suppose that's the house where we'll have to stay in.

9 Could we arrange a time when we'll both be free?

10 I'm afraid I haven't sent exactly what he asked for.

11 That I can't stand is queuing in the rain.

12 Have you any idea to whom I'll be speaking to?

13 Is that the school which you studied?

14 He'll show the new students which to do.

15 You'd better tell me the reason for he didn't turn up.

16 That's the old chap whom you met at the bus-stop last week, isn't it?

17 That was the day when I mislaid my passport.

18 What he told you is hopelessly inaccurate.

Exercise 2. Join the sentences together into one sentence using WH-CLAUSES or THAT- CLAUSES.

DISCOURSE MARKERS

“MAIN POINT” MARKERS

Exercise 1. In the passages below, underline the sentences which could begin with ANYWAY / ANYHOW / IN ANY CASE / AT ANY RATE.

FOR EXAMPLE / FOR INSTANCE vs. ALL IN ALL / IN SHORT? Decide on a suitable order of the sentences below.

1. (a) You could learn ten new words every day.

(b) There are various steps you could take to improve your English.

2.(a) We couldn’t do without her.

(b) She’s efficient, a good organiser and good at handling people.

3. (a) A few mammals have characteristics of birds and reptiles.

(b) The duck-billed platypus lays eggs.

4. (a) Sea City is hot, ugly, smelly and violent.

(b) It’s a place to avoid.

5. (a) Some of the expressions taught in books are old-fashioned.

(b) You are unlikely to hear anyone in England say ‘It’s raining cats and dogs’.

CLARIFICATION:

namely, i.e., for example / e.g., such as, including, especially

Exercise 8. Insert NAMELY vs. I. E. in the sentences below. Translate into Russian.

1. The Prime Minister was educated at one of the most famous public schools in England, Eton.

2. She dedicated her last book to ‘Dear Bill, who made it all possible’, the cousin who had helped her when she was a young writer.

3. The competition to stage the Olympics was closely fought between two great Latin American cities, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro.

4. There was one make of computer, which seemed to offer particularly good value for money on the basis of our tests, the Tranox 486.

5. For his birthday Tom received a pair of blue and white woollen socks knitted by his aunt, a present he had no use for whatsoever.

6. There was only one person who was against the idea, myself.

7. There may be other planets in the universe like Earth, planets with oxygen and water.

8. Surely I already know what the contents of our contract are: that I am to work for you for a period of 18 months, after which time you will release me with my debt to you cancelled.

9. Shareholders drew their own conclusions: that it was time to sell out.

10. It would be helpful to consider what Dr. Slabbert said at the conference in Johannesburg on August 2, 1991, that the Department of National Health has the capacity to deal with major health problems.

11. This shows how little they were aware of the challenge facing them – to re-establish prosperity and the rule of law.

Exercise 9.Choose suitable forms to complete the passage below. Note that punctuation is sometimes important in choosing an answer.

In the twenty-first century, we shall see a great increase in the use of alternative energy sources, ¹especially / such as wind and water power. Several states in the USA already use wind power, ²for example/namely California, where huge “wind farms’ have been constructed ³i.e. / e.g. power stations consisting of many windmills linked together in series). Water power, too, is already an important source of electricity in countries with plentiful rivers and lakes ⁴such as/for example Norway.

Solar energy is another energy source which will be widely used in areas with plenty of sunshine ⁵such as/i.e. Egypt and the countries of North Africa. Solar energy may even make a contribution in regions with cool climates, ⁶namely/including the countries of northern Europe. France has one particularly important solar energy research facility, ⁷especially/namely the solar generator at Font Romeu, in the Pyrenees.

By contrast, the use of nuclear power may diminish. Problems with nuclear safety, ⁸ especially/such as the accident at Chernobyl, have made governments less willing to invest in nuclear power stations. However, scientists are working to produce energy safely from nuclear ‘fusion’, ⁹i.e./including a technique in which atoms are joined together. This could replace the present basis of nuclear power, ¹⁰namely/especially nuclear ‘fission’, in which atoms are split apart.

ORGANISATION AND NARRATIVE MARKERS

Exercise 10. Use FIRSTLY / FIRST vs. AT FIRST; Revise ADDITION linkers. Alter punctuation as necessary.

1. I didn’t enjoy the work.. It took me a long time to get used to it.

2. There are several reasons why you should choose Sue for the job. She is extremely well qualified. She has the necessary experience.

3. (to an apprentice in a workshop) Let me look at your work. Mm. It isn’t bad, but there are still some faults. You haven’t tightened these screws. Can you see them? And also, you’ve cut these wires too short... .

4. We shall launch our new models next week. They’ll only be available in the London stores, but eventually they’ll be sold throughout the country.

5. The company has made mistakes. It should have invested in new technology. It should not have closed down its Atlantica factory.

6. Much research has been carried out on the disease. It was thought that chemical agents were responsible. It is now known to be caused by a virus.

Exercise 11. Fill in the gaps with appropriate ORGANISATION AND NARRATIVE linkers.

1. _____________, the River Ouse flowed through the town. But sediment built up in the Ouse, and around 1300 the course of the river changed to run through Maryville.

2. They promised to deliver by the end of June, but the goods __________turned up on 16 August.

3. John and Anita got married ____________of May. ____________, the marriage worked well, but problems soon began to emerge.

4. We had a long and bitter argument, but ________I realised he was right after all.

5. I burnt the meat and dropped the vegetables, but the meal turned out all right _____.

6. ________the waiter brought them their meal, but by then it was cold.

7. After the operation, he went home to recuperate. ______________ he made good progress, but his condition soon began to deteriorate.

8. _____________ of the film, we are introduced to the two main characters, Bill and Sarah Cunningham.

9. Damian told me the other day that he wants to be an astronaut. I didn’t believe him _______, but then I realised he was serious!

10. She spent days trying to decide what to do. She ____________ decided that the best course of actions was to do nothing.

11. I’ve spent thousands of pounds trying to get my driving licence, and now, after seventeen goes, I’ve got it ___________!

12. They tried hard to make the marriage work, but their hearts weren’t in it, and they got divorced _____________.

13. The story jumps around from place to place, and there are characters introduced who don’t seem to be connected. ____________, you have very little idea of what it was all about.

14. I had to wait weeks for the cheque to come, but it arrived __________.

Exercise 12. Mixed ORGANISATION AND NARRATIVE linkers. Complete the letter of F. Brayne, a romantic novelist, to her publisher.

¹ Firstly, I’d just like to say that I found our meeting very useful, and the lunch was delicious! Unfortunately, when I got to the station I discovered I had missed the last train home. ²__________, after many inquiries, I decided to take a train to Ipswich and go on from there by taxi - a distance of 20 miles! ³______________, I’ll give you my reactions to your suggestions for Sad Heart.

⁴ __________I wasn’t keen on your idea of making the main character an older woman, but now I see how it might work. How about this? ⁵__________ she’s shown to be disappointed and uncertain because of the failures in her life, but the story describes how her life goes in new directions. ⁶__________, she knows who she is, and is ready for new challenges.

⁷_____________, I’d like to clear up one point. I think you said that the royalty would rise to 15% on sales above 10,000. Can you confirm this?

Yours Fiona Brayne

PS: ⁸__________ I’ve abandoned my dear old typewriter and joined the XXI century! This letter is written on my new word processor - not so many typing errors for you to correct.

REPHRASING AND CORRECTING

Exercise 13. IN OTHER WORDS, OR RATHER, AT LEAST.

A: Make out a proper linking device and consider the ways of translating the sentences into Russian.

1. The brides usually keep their bouquets, _______ whoever caught them does.

2. As an occasional journalist his only `offensive weapon' was his pen, ________ , his word processor.

3. In Jacques Lacan's reinterpretation of Freud, sexuality, ________ sexual desire, is constituted in language

4. All this staff makes me feel uneasy and isolated, _______, did make me.

5. As you can doubtless see, I'm in the middle of decorating, _______, I was when you barged in and interrupted me.

6. He came very late last night, ________, very early this morning.

7. So that was how it all began: the life, ________ the new life, or better still the Good Life.

8. Rayleen helped too, _________ her uniform did, giving us a pseudo-official status which meant we could jump the queue.

9. As he had already been interviewed four times and been in police custody for over 24 hours, the expectation would be that a solicitor might well consider that, ________ for that evening, enough was enough and that he ought to advise his client not to answer further questions.

10. Was not a bowl of wine the cause of the demise of Alexander the Great, ________, does not Dr. Lempriere say so?

11. Too often, for example, rural communities are faced with an educational system which denies, _______ neglects, many traditional rural values, and emphasises urban values to the detriment of the rural community.

12. After three years of groping in the dark they have emerged not quite into sparkling sunshine but _________into the hint of a new dawn.

13. How many of us really try to buy goods made of recycled materials, _______ protest at the extravagant use of costly and unnecessary packaging?

14. He left last Tuesday – ________ I think he did.

15. This is what is sometimes referred to as intentional terminological inexactitude, _________, a lie.

16. They took with them some chocolate, cans of beer and fruit juice, a flask of coffee, a pack of sandwiches: ________, enough refreshments.

17. Local authority revenue could be obtained through either a local income tax and/or a local sales tax –__________, through methods similar to those used in raising central government revenues.

18. Your performance in the exam did not reach the required standard _ ______, you failed.

19. Addicted TV viewers have a shortened attention span and a lack of reflectiveness – the ability to think, __________.

20. Effective staff management is, therefore, as much concerned with `why' and `how' as `what and `when; ________, organisational processes are as significant as organisational tasks and the one should inform the other.

B: Mr Perkins doesn’t like Bert, his daughter’s boyfriend. Complete what he says about Bert.

OPINION MARKERS

Exercise 1. Decide which discourse opinion markers from the box go best with each sentence. You can use the sentences more than once.

a) that’s exactly what I was thinking

b) the door opened but no-one was there

c) she was terribly generous

d) everything turned out all right in the end

e) the old lady survived the delicate operation

f) he met her through a dating agency

g) there was no difficulty in finding parking space this early in the morning.

Exercise 2.

A: Make the use of discourse markers from the box to rewrite the following sentences, keeping the meaning similar. Translate into Russian.

Example: I decided to go ahead even if it didn’t sound right. à Rightly or wrongly, I decided to go ahead.

1. __________, the exchange rate is much lower than it is unofficially.

2. It’s __________possible to cure a patient by using this form of treatment, but ________a cure hasn’t yet been achieved.

3. She’s ____________ doing it for the sake of others, but in my opinion, she’s _________interested only in herself.

4. ___________she is in charge of the project, but Jack does all the work.

5. I should imagine that there are about 70 students left.

6. I have the feeling, __________, that I shall regret my decision.

7. They usually come to classes every day.

8. A large number of 3d years enjoy doing Grammar.

9. If we take everything into consideration, they are very willing.

10. Madelana thought she was about to burst into tears, though there seems to be no reason for it.

11. They were madly in love, wildly happy, and they didn’t seem to regret a thing.

B: Rewrite the following, using an opinion marker.

Example: I am being serious when I say that we'd be enormously grateful if you'd stay till we get back. à Seriously, we'd be enormously grateful if you’d stay till we get back.

1) And she knew that, if she was realistic about it no edition of the paper could be put together, printed, and distributed the same day if the news came later than 3.45.

2) We are lucky that there are some clear fingerprints on the knife.

3) It is obvious that politics is becoming an increasingly dangerous game.

4) They may be mad, but — you must agree, don't you? — they don't want to starve.

5) It appears he's been prescribed some kind of pills, and we're supposed to make sure he doesn't drink.

6) Truman's performance during what you could argue was the most crucial week of his presidency was of a very high quality.

7) If he sued and won he would — there's no doubt about it — be awarded a very large sum of money indeed.

8) It is interesting to note that the things some of us find frightening, other people experience as exciting.

9) It was very sensible of you to decline to listen to this improper and insulting stuff.

10) You've got to remember that a microphone was put under my nose immediately I got off the horse. Of course, when I think about it now, I would rather have not spoken on television.

REVISION TIME (Chapter 4)

Exercise 1. Fill in the gaps with appropriate linking devices. Sometimes there are several options possible.

1. He was _____ fat _____ he couldn’t get through the door.

2. She’s ____ cute!

3. She’ _____ a pretty thing!

4. She left home ______ she could be more independent.

5. She has found a well-paid job, ______ she could buy a computer.

6. Take the passport _______ they ask for identity.

7. I’ll send the plans for you _____ study them fully before the meeting.

8. This knife is ______ cutting bread.

9. He missed the class ______ he was not well.

10. ________ you know him well, why don’t you talk the matter over with him?

11. The price has increased. _________, the fall in demand can be expected.

12. He decided not to take a taxi ________ saved $5.

13. The desks are kept some distance apart, ________ prevent cheating.

14. It was dark, ________ I couldn’t see what was happening.

15. ______ she has no car, she can’t get there easily.

16. _______ parking is not allowed here, I have to give you a ticket.

17. The car is parked in the wrong place. ______, the driver must get a parking ticket.

18. I am too busy today, ______ can you come tomorrow?

19. The police tapped the terrorists’ phone, ________ collected the information that was used at their trial.

20. The police tapped the terrorist’s phone, the information was _________collected for the trial.

21. The item you requested is no longer available and we are _____ returning your cheque.

22. These birds are very rare. ______, they are protected by law.

23. His illness __________ eating contaminated food.

24. These problems are __________ years of bad management.

25. Science has _________ many changes in our lives.

26. The increase in business activity was _________by the fall in oil prices.

27. Her irresponsible behaviour has _______ a great deal of anxiety to her family.

28. They believe that increasing wages can ________ inflation.

29. Unhygienic conditions ________ disease.

30. The flight was delayed _______ to the weather conditions.

31. __________ severe weather conditions, all trains will be subject to delays.

32. The cancellation of the flight was ____ to the engine malfunction.

33. He arrived late ______ to the storm.

34. His absence was ____ to the storm.

35. We stayed at home _________the weather.

36. The closure of the factory was ________ lack of orders.

37. The factory closed down _________ lack of orders.

38. _________the shop didn’t attract customers, it closed.

39. He invented a wife and 6 children and _______avoided paying income tax.

40. He invented a wife and 6 children _________ pay income tax.

41. We have lost a lot of business _________your incompetence.

42. The computer has become cheaper and __________more available to a greater number of people.

43. We’ll spend more money on education and ________give our young people hope for the future.

44. _______her absence, they decided to postpone the meeting.

45. ________it was Saturday, he stayed in bed an extra hour.

46. The house is not really suitable for an old person _________all those stairs.

47. The plants died ________lack of water.

48. They found gold in the area _________a mistake in calculations.

49. I packed him a little food ________he wouldn’t get hungry.

50. Their increase in profits is entirely _________hard work.

51. Their profits increased _________hard work.

52. ______he’d been in prison several times, he was a prime suspect for the case.

53. He retired last month _______his asthma.

54. Rose trod with care _______ spread the dirt.

55. ________ repairs the garage will be closed next Saturday.

56. A rise in incomes will create increased purchasing power, _________stimulating demand for goods and services.

57. We have a growing population and ________we need more and more food.

58. He never went out ________he might be seen.

59. The new machines will work twice as fast,_____ generally reducing costs.

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with appropriate linkers.

A.Suddenly she came upon a little three-legged table, all made of solid glass; there was nothing on it _________(1) a tiny golden key, ________(2) Alice's first idea was that this might be­long to one of the doors of the hall; but alas! _________ (3) the locks were too large, __________(4) the key was too small, _______(5) at any rate it would not open any of them. ___________(6), on the second time round, she came upon a low curtain she had not no­ticed before, and be­hind it was a little door about fifteen inches high; she tried the little golden key in the lock, __________(7) to her great delight it fitted!

B."In that case" said the Dodo solemnly, rising to its feet, "I move that the meeting adjourn, for the immediate adop­tion of more energetic remedies—"

"Speak English!" said the Eaglet. I don't know the meaning of half those long words, and _________(1), I don't believe you do either!" , _________(2) the Eaglet bent down his head to hide a smile: some of the other birds tittered audibly.

"What I was going to say," said the Dodo in an offended tone, "was, that the best thing to get us dry would be a caucus-race."

"What is a caucus-race?" said Alice; not that she much wanted to know, ________(3) the Dodo had paused ________(4) it thought that somebody ought to speak, _________(5) no one _________(6) seemed in­clined to say anything.

C. In spite of the women's liberation movement and the so-called sexual revolution of the sixties and seventies, and ________(1) the increasing number of de facto relationships, it seems that marriage has returned. Recent statistics indicate that the institution has never been so popular. Some things, ________(2), have definitely changed. A generation ago a couple marrying were younger than today; they probably would not have had sexual relations; _______(3) almost certainly would not have lived together. __________(4), they probably would have taken it for granted that their roles in marriage were going to be very different. What has not changed, ________(5), is the reason couples give for marrying: _________(6) in the past, this continues to be the emotional bond they share and includes the desire for a family.

D.Lazy Madrid, busy Barcelona: it is _______(1) one of many stereotypes about Spain's great rivals.

"We are more liberal, and that explains almost everything," says Miquel Roes who, ________(2) a parliamentary leader of the Catalan Nationalists, spends much of his time shuttling between the two cities. Barcelona has the liber­alism that often char­acterises port cities. As Catalans see it, ________(3) Madrid bathes in bureaucracy, Barcelona gets on with business. An old-fashioned seri­ousness in Madrid, iso­lated high up on Spain's central plateau, contrasts with the light-heartedness of Barcelona, open to Europe and aggres­sively avant-garde. ________(4), these days, the similari­ties between the two cities are at least ________(5) striking as the contrasts. Madrid is hardly lazy any more. Visitors find it hard to keep up with the pace of the place. ________(6) is it old-fashioned. Indeed, it has become almost out­rageously modern. To judge by the local cuisine, you would think the place was a port: ________(7) far from the sea, seafood is a miraculous Madrid speciality. In recent years once-isolationist Madrid has become every bit as fanatical about "Europe" as Barcelona.

Exercise 3.

A: Open the second sentence with an appropriate logical connector.

1. -You should go home.

-I must stay here with you.

2. The economic situation is improving.

3 plants in our region have begun to work.

3. The value of the dollar is rising.

Imports into the US are getting cheaper.

4. The house has been empty for a week.

They must have gone on vacation.

5. The Red Cross hasn’t been allowed to inspect the camps.

Little is known about the refuges.

6. Many roads in Germany were flooded.

There were long delays.

7. Absolute secrecy is essential.

The fewer are aware of the plan the better.

8. The virus attacks the plant, the flower won’t open.

There’ll be no seeds.

9. The dangers of the drug haven’t been made public.

Some patients are unaware of the side-effects.

10. The Bank of England has lowered its rate of interest.

A similar reduction can be expected from other banks.

11. Calcium carbonade contains 40% calcium by weight.

A 125 mg tablet should contain 50 mg of calcium.

12. Some films are highly sensitive and react quickly to light.

They are known as fast films.

B: Connect the ideas with appropriate linkers.

1. a) Japan has a massive trade surplus with the rest of the world.

b) It can afford to give more money to the Third World.

2. a) There is a wonderful opportunity to make a lot of money.

b) There are high risks involved.

3. a) We have good reason to feel pleased with our progress.

b) We mustn’t get complacent.

4. a) She had had a good long rest.

b) She was feeling much better and much more relaxed.

5. a) This is one of the most commonly used metals in modern industry.

b) Its availability is widespread.

6. a) Our flight was delayed.

b) Air-traffic controllers were on strike.

7. a) We were planning to play tennis.

b) It was raining and we went swimming.

8. a) There’s not much water left.

b) Be careful not to use much.

9. a) The cost of running the club has increased.

b) We must ask our members to contribute more each week.

10. a) You are going to be in the area anyway.

b) You can pick up the order for me.

11. a) The rest of the week I’m tied up.

b) It’ll have to be Monday.

12. a) It is late.

b) Why don’t we get a take-away meal instead of cooking for ourselves?

13. a) The latest news about the economy has been extremely depressing.

b) Public confidence in the government has reached an all-time low.

14. a) Our survey will produce the essential statistics.

b) It will provide information about people’s shopping habits.

15. a) Think carefully about whether you really want the job.

b) Are you able to move the house if you do get it?

16. a) There was absolute silence.

b) There was the sound of the sea in the distance.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into English.

A:

1. Музыка будет настолько громкой, что ты просто не сможешь подойти близко к сцене.

2. Говорят, “Naked Gun” - хороший фильм, поэтому я, наверное, куплю кассету.

3. Я позвоню ему, чтобы напомнить о книге. Он все время забывает ее принести.

4. Финансовые трудности - причина многих разводов.

5. Невнимательность на дороге очень часто приводит к столкновениям.

6. Она не входила в палату из страха заразиться.

7. Серия сокращений, которая закончилась потерей работы для сотен служащих, вызвала бурный протест.

8. Он резко повернул руль, чтобы избежать наезда.

9. Вы можете объяснить причину вашего отсутствия на Совете директоров?

10. Серьезные ссоры часто происходят из-за мелочей.

11. Он застонал от отчаяния. Она пошла в магазин за чаем.

12. Отпечатков пальцев нигде нет. Значит, преступник работал в перчатках.

13. Девочки взвизгнули от радости, увидев подругу.

14. Ты провалил страноведение по собственной глупости - не мог “шпору” достать?

15. Я отправлю запрос по Е-mail, чтобы не терять время.

16. Банк закрыл кредит компании. В результате она обанкротилась.

17. Из-за твоей ………..мне придется теперь делать все заново!

18. Возьму еще сотню - на случай, если оштрафуют.

19. - Почему вы не отдали ему ключ?

- Понимаете, дело в том, что я не смог его найти.

B:

1. Закрытие магазина обусловлено не зависящими от нас обстоятельствами.

2. Плюс к своим ежедневным обязанностям, на этой неделе учителям приходится выполнять очень много «бумажной» работы.

3. У Мартины есть еще много о чем подумать, кроме работы.

4. Раз уж ты идешь в магазин, купи кое-что и мне тоже.

5. Каникулы были ужасными: не только еда отвратительная, но и погода дождливая.

6. Одни люди страдают от полноты, тогда как другие никак не могут поправиться.

7. В доме все было так же, как до отъезда, только на мебели лежал толстый слой пыли.

8. Он не взял с собой ничего, кроме небольшого чемоданчика.

9. Все светильники были выключены, кроме одной маленькой лампочки в углу.

10. Все было замечательно организовано, кроме гостиницы.

11. Нет, я не останусь. Завтра рано вставать, да и скучновато тут что-то.

12. Он никому не сказал об этом, чтобы никого не тревожить.

Exercise 5.Insert appropriate linkers and connectors:

1. I’d say my job has become more interesting. ______________, I wonder if we could discuss my salary some time?

2. The cost may be lower than we first thought but ______________ it will still be quite substantial.

3. He explained what the Crux is, ______________ what it was.

4. Either he escaped, or he came to grief. ____________, he was never seen again.

5. I’m very happy now that I have past my test! We should celebrate it! ______________ , do you think you could lend me $50?

6. I didn’t ask you to come. ___________, why have you come?

7. The mobile library services have been reorganised – _____________, they visit fewer places.

8. It’s not difficult to get money for research, ______________ it’s not always difficult.

9. – What does the market research consist of?

- Well, ___________, it depends on our target age group.

10. He left on Tuesday. ____________ I think he did.

11. I have to go now. ______________, if you want that book, I’ll bring it next time.

12. I’m getting a grant for a speech therapy course. But _____________, I don’t know whether I want to do it any more.

13. The police say his death was an accident, _______________, officially.

14. They liked the magazine very much – ______________, they bought it or borrowed it from each other.

15. This topic is very difficult for the 1^st years to discuss. _______________, how did the seminar go?

Exercise 6. Join these sentences using appropriate linkers.

1. Noise is unpleasant. It’s even more unpleasant when you’re trying to sleep.

2. The local community is still reliant on traditional industries. Farming and mining are examples of them.

3. You can’t rely on her. She arrived an hour late for an important meeting yesterday.

4. There’s one more topic to discuss. It’s the question of our salary.

5. The cinema is only open to adults. It’s open to people over 18.

6. We’ve planted lots of different flowers. Among them we have roses, carnations and poppies.

7. I didn’t like them, now I do.

8. I’ll mention the advantages. I’ll mention the disadvantages.

9. I get dressed. I bring the paper. I feed the cat. I fix my breakfast.

10. You must avoid sweet foods. You must avoid cakes, chocolate, caramel and stuff like this.

11. Arabic is written in the opposite direction to English. It’s written from right to left.

12. On most English farms you’ll find only three kinds of animals. They are sheep, cattle and pigs.

13. I need your name and address. What’s your date of birth?

14. There are three reasons why I hate him: he is rude, he is a liar and he owes me money.

15. He was never a useful assistant to me. He was rather a nuisance.

Exercise 7. Translate into English

1. Это наше самое постыдное поражение. Одним словом, фиаско.

2. Наконец-то мы узнали, что произошло на самом деле.

3. Я делал попытку за попыткой и в конце концов у меня получилось.

4. Мы не можем поехать – начнем с того, что слишком холодно, а кроме того у нас нет денег.

5. В общем и в целом, мы неплохо провели время.

6. Думаю, что книга не переиздавалась с 1977 г., так или иначе, я буду ссылаться на это издание.

7. В конце концов, ничего необычного в этом не было. Просто еще один развод. Вообще-то все намного сложнее, чем кажется.

8. Я его не люблю, скажу больше, ненавижу.

9. И вдруг он увидел перед собой, а точнее, над собой большую птицу.

10. Поначалу он быстро уставал, но вскоре привык.

11. Один из них долго смотрел на меня и наконец спросил, что я здесь делаю.

12. Похоже у них проблемы с ориентацией в пространстве, иначе говоря, они заблудились.

13. Я не знаю точно чем он занимался. По-моему это было связано с промышленностью. Но, как бы там ни было, он получил за это рыцарское звание (knighthood).

14. Она от него без ума, вернее (точнее сказать), он так думает.

15. Он не против, можно сказать больше, горит желанием начать.

16. На экзамене вы не показали ожидаемый уровень знаний. Иначе говоря, вы не сдали.

17. – С днем рождения, Том!

– Вообще-то, день рождения у меня был вчера.

18. Может, мы и не успеем на автобус, но в любом случае, мы будем там к полудню.

Exercise 8. Choose the best linking devices from the list below the MEMO to fill in the gaps.

To: Director

From: Office Manager

I have several proposals for cutting down on office staff. ¹___________, I suggest that we eliminate the full-time position of order clerk, ²___________ there is not enough work to occupy him throughout the month. Orders and requests for sales information are heaviest at the end of the month; ³_____________, there is little to do the first two weeks of each month. ⁴______________, I recommend that we hire temporary help for the last two weeks of each month and give the orders from the first of the month to the sales department to process.

⁵________________, now that our systems are completely computerised we no longer need a computer programmer on staff. It’s true, we will need computer programming services occasionally in future, ⁶___________________, when we revise our billing system. In such cases, ⁷ _________________, we can hire a freelance programmer.

⁸_________________, I suggest that I share my secretary with the assistant office manager, ⁹________________ eliminating one secretarial position.

¹⁰______________ this will increase the managerial workload, I feel we can handle it. ¹¹ _______________, we can always hire temporary help to get us through particularly busy periods.

If these suggestions are followed, we should be able to save approximately $26,000 in the coming year in salaries alone. ¹²______________ , I believe these changes will result in greater work efficiency.

Choose from:

1. at first first in the first

2. thus so since

3. on the contrary conversely in contrast

4. therefore consequently hence

5. second on the other hand otherwise

6. consequently for instance even though

7. however in addition as a matter of fact

8. apart from second moreover

9. by contrast likewise thus

10. although since so

11. finally lastly moreover

12. in a word so in addition

Exercise 9.In the following essay, the linking words and phrases are left out. Fill in each blank with any linker that makes sense.

Every day we hear about the problem of hunger in Africa. Many authorities state causes, _____________¹ drought and overpopulation. They ____________² suggest solutions, ______________³ food aid and population control.

It is true that such realities as drought and overpopulation worsen the problem of hunger in Africa. _____________⁴, these realities are not the real cause of Africa’s famine. The real culprit is poverty, _____________⁵ only by doing something about poverty itself can we solve the hunger problem in Africa.

I am not suggesting that we ignore the problems of drought and overpopulation. ______________⁶, I believe we should study them carefully in order to learn what lies behind them. Let us look, ______________⁷, at drought.

Insufficient rainfall is a problem for farmers all over the world, _____________⁸ it is only the truly poor who die from it. How, ______________⁹, did Africans become so poor? In the past several hundred years, with the help of European colonizers, the best farmlands were taken and planted in cash crops for export, with profits going to a few of the wealthy. _______________¹⁰, there has not been enough food produced for the poor majority, _______________¹¹ it is these already hungry people who are so affected by drought. Since food aid treats symptoms, not causes, I suggest that the only long-lasting solution to this problem lies, not in food aid, ___________¹² in revising Africa’s farming practices.

_______________¹³, let’s look at the second authorities mention, ____________¹⁴, overpopulation. It is true that Africa’s population growth rate is higher than that of any other continent.

_______________¹⁴, having many children is logical for African farmers, who need a lot of workers for the family farm and who know one out of three of these children will die before adulthood. Studies from all over the world show that the best way to raise living standards is to lower birth rates.

_______________¹⁵, when African parents can be sure their children will survive and tha

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