Билет 1. theoretical and practical grammar.the grammatical meaning, grammatical form, the grammatical category
Grammatical meaning – general abstract meaning which unites classes of forms or words & finds its expression through formal markers thus placing a linguistic unit in a grammatical category or grammatical class of words.
The differences between lexical and grammatical meanings can be summarized according to the following five points: the degree of abstraction in a language, the degree of autonomy, the degree of openness, obligatory/non-obligatory character. Generally grammatical meanings are more abstract than lexical meanings. Grammatical form – a means of expression a grammatical meaning.There are several types of form-building in Eng. The main subdivision of form-building types is into Synthetical and analytical. In Synthetical type a gram meaning is expressed within a W, in analytical – is expressed with the help of auxiliary Ws (+ suff)
The synth include: affixation {the only productive} (books, theirs, shows), sound-interchange (take-took), suppletivity (go-went, good-better-the best).The analit type ocupies a very important place in the gram struct of the W as L has revolutionized from being mainly synth to becoming more analit. There exist so called half-analytical structures (be going). A grammatical category is an analytical class within the grammar of a language, whose members have the same syntactic distribution and recur as structural unit throughout the language, and which share a common property which can be semantic or syntactic.
Each grammatical category has several "exponents", at most one of which marks a constituent of an expression: a noun or noun phrase cannot be marked for singular and plural at the same time, nor can a verb be marked for present and past at the same time. Exponents of grammatical categories are often expressed in the same position or 'slot' in the word (such as prefix, suffix or enclitic). An example of this is the Latin cases, which are all suffixal: rosa, rosae, rosae, rosam, rosā. ("rose", in nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative) .
Билет 2. The theory of opposition. types of linguistic opposition.Modern linguistics views the language system as consisting of several subsystems all based on oppositions, differences, samenesses and positional values. A lexical opposition is defined as a semantically relevant relationship of partial difference between two partially similar words. Each of the tens of thousands of lexical units constituting the vocabulary possesses a certain number of characteristic features variously combined and making each separate word into a special sign different from all other words. Distinctive features and oppositions take different specific manifestations on different linguistic levels: in phonology, morphology, lexicology. We deal with lexical distinctive features and lexical oppositions. Thus, in the opposition doubt : : doubtful the distinctive features are morphological: doubt is a root word and a noun, doubtful is a derived adjective. The features that the two contrasted words possess in common form the basis of a lexical opposition. The features must be chosen so as to show whether any element we may come across belongs to the given set or not.1 They must also be important, so that the presence of a distinctive feature must allow the prediction of secondary features connected with it. The feature may be constant or variable, or the basis may be formed by a combination of constant and variable features, as in the case of the following group: pool, pond, lake, sea, ocean with its variation for size. Without a basis of similarity no comparison and no opposition are possible. When the basis is not limited to the members of one opposition but comprises other elements of the system, we call the opposition polydimensional. The presence of the same basis or combination of features in several words permits their grouping into a subset of the vocabulary system. Every element of a subset of the vocabulary is also an element of the vocabulary as a whole. It has become customary to denote oppositions by the signs.The common feature of the members of this particular opposition forming its basis is the adjective stem -skilled-. The distinctive feature is the presence or absence of the prefix un-. This distinctive feature may in other cases also serve as the basis of equivalence so that all adjectives beginning with un- form a subset of English vocabulary (unable, unaccountable, unaffected, unarmed, etc..
Билет 3. synthetical and analytical forms. Place of analytical forms in the grammatical system of English language. Forms of synthesis. There are several ways in which a language can exhibit synthetic characteristics. Derivational synthesis. In derivational synthesis, morphemes of different types (nouns, verbs, affixes, etc.) are joined to create new words.Relational synthesis. In relational synthesis, root words are joined to bound morphemes to show grammatical function.