Section 3. ADDRESSING THE AUDIENCE

At the dawning of the 21st century, interpersonal communication has become vitally important. It is what separates the leaders from those who are only able to submit to the profound changes in store for us. Some people have a knack that enables them to perform well in public speaking, and others not. The secret of communication consists in the art of positively affecting others — moving them, in other words. To begin with, always greet your listeners by stating, "Ladies and Gentlemen," or some equivalent such as, "My fellow citizens." This opening is intended to get the audience's attention and their friendly attitude. Remember to mention the authorities if it is an official gathering.

Faculty, students, staff, alumnae, trustees of Wellesley College, conference panelists and other special guests – we're so happy to have you here. [4]

Grammar Focus: Noun Review

For non-native speakers of English problems with the noun use may start as early as when greeting the audience:

Dear Ladies and Gentlemen!

Knowing that the plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the suffix s(more than one book = books), EFL speakers tend to add s to the word gentlemen which is an exception. On the other hand, if a speaker forgets to pay attention to pluralization, the word ladies might lose its plural form, as if the audience counts only one female person.

To eliminate such mistakes, first of all it is necessary to note that some nouns are countable which means you can use either the singular or plural form of the noun:one student - some students.

Other nouns are uncountable which means you can use only the singular form of the noun:information - some information.

While the rules for pluralization in the English language are relatively simple, things do become muddled with exceptions. Thus, there are several nouns that have irregular plural forms. Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called mutated (or mutating) plurals:

· more than one child = children

· more than one man = men

· more than one person = people

· more than one woman = women

Besides, one must be especially careful when the rules of pluralisation are inherited from the language the word came from:

· crisis [plural crises]

· criterion [plural criteria]

· focus [plural foci]

· fungus [plural fungi]

· nucleus [plural nuclei]

· numen [plural numina]

· syllabus [plural syllabi]

· virtuoso [plural virtuosi or virtuosos]

Compound words require a special attention when we need to pluralize them. As a general rule, the element within the compound that word that is pluralized will receive the plural -s, but it is not always that simple. Daughters-in-law follows the general rule, but cupfuls does not. See a good dictionary for additional help.

Notes on Usage

Traditionally, nouns are regarded as either abstract or concrete. A concrete noun refers to an object which can be directly perceived by our senses, like tree or building, whereas an abstract noun refers to an idea or concept, such as society or thought. Stylistically, the frequent use of abstract nouns in a text may lead us to describe the text as thoughtful, scholarly, pedantic, etc., especially when it is possible to use concrete nouns instead of their abstract counterparts.

In English , what is known as the genitiveorpossessivecase, is indicated at the end of the noun with an 's' (in writing, a singular noun ends with an apostrophe followed by an 's', and a plural noun ends with an 's' followed by an apostrophe). The noun with this construction usually indicates that the person/ being/ thing which it refers to owns the referent of the noun which immediately follows it, but other meanings are possible in the genitive case in English (eg. that the referent of the second noun is located within the first one, etc.).

Unusual use of the number and case of the nouns make the speech more expressive.

Gender refers to the male or female variants of certain nouns, such as actor/actress, waiter/waitress or pronouns such as he/she, him/her. From the ideological point of view, gender becomes especially significant when the writer (or narrator, character, speaker etc.) can resort to a gender-neutral lexical item, but resorts instead to a gender-marked noun or pronoun.

However, one of the main social changes of our time has been the rising status of women. Not only do most Can­adian women now work outside the home, but increasing numbers have entered professions once dominated by men (such as law, medicine and business), and more and more women have taken man­agement positions.

Since language reflects society, some traditional as­pects of English now strike most of us as sexist – biased against women. To say "policeman" ignores the fact that today we also see women patrolling the streets and driving squad cars. It is only natural that more and more people now say and write "police of­ficer" instead of "policeman," for this more neutral term reflects an equality of the sexes.

Though some traditionalists still think the earlier usages are acceptable, almost everyone else now views sexism in language as a social and political blunder. Does it appear in your own writing? If so, consider and try out the following suggestions:

A. Avoid terms that unnecessarily differentiate female from male:

B. Use forms of address that reflect equality of the sexes.

Traditionally we have called a woman either "Miss" or "Mrs.," signalling whether she is single or married. By contrast, we have used the less specific term "Mr." for all men. Some women still prefer the traditional terms; in these cases respect their wish to be called "Miss" or "Mrs." But call other women "Ms.," so they will not resent the unnec­essary scrutiny of their private lives.

In the past, a woman was often addressed by her husband's full name:

Mrs. Pierre Tremblay

Mrs. Albert Tsang

Avoid this practice, for it implies that a woman's identity is derived only through a husband. In­stead, use the woman's own first name, preceded by "Ms." – unless she prefers "Mrs.":

Ms. Jocelyne Tremblay Mrs. Elaine Tsang

(Of course specify her own last name if she does not use her husband's.)

C. The pronoun "he" should refer only to males.

This idea may seem to be self-evident, but remember the old practice of using "he" for a person or per­sons of unspecified gender ("Everyone paid for his own dinner"). In cases like this, the "his" or the "he" implies that males are more important than females; in fact, it almost implies there are no females at all. Another example:

A lawyer has little time for his family. (Unspoken assumption: lawyers are all men.)

One alternative is "his or her" (to be fair, use "her or his" half the time):

A lawyer often has little time for his or her family.

One problem with this approach, though, is its clumsy repetition and wordiness:

A lawyer has not only too little time for her or his clients, but also for her or his family.

In reaching for a style free of repetition, many people create new errors, this time in agreement:

A lawyer has not only too little time for his or her clients, but also for their own family. (While "his or her" is singular, "their" is plural.)

A better solution is to use plurals all the way:

Lawyers have not only too little time for their clients, but also for their own families.

An even cleaner solution to this and other pro­noun problems is sometimes just to rewrite the sentence with no pronoun at all:

A lawyer has too little time for either clients or family.

At first it may seem hard to free your prose of gender bias while still maintaining good style. But remember that there are almost always other ways to word your thoughts. Seek them through revision, as in these examples.

D. Stereotyping the sexes is a form of bias. Avoid it.

Consider alternatives such as these:

The Article

Among the more frequently encountered determiners in English are the articles, which can be definite (the) or indefinite (a). The stylistic significance of the articles is self-explanatory. In addition to the conventional interpretation, you may find that the definite article, especially if its accompanying noun appears for the first time, may reveal what the speaker (or writer, character, etc.) regards as knowledge which is shared by the reader/listener. (However, the use of the in relation to an accompanying noun for the first time in an extract from a larger discourse may tell us what we should have known from an earlier part of the text).

Besides, modern use of the definite article the might create a special tone of the speech. For example, if a text begins: 'The two men were standing by the bar in the club', the readers/listeners will obviously be interested what two men are meant. They would not know yet, of course, but they would be patient, expecting to be told a little later (and they would be told). The use of the, as though talking of people already known to the reader/listener, in the first sentence of the narration immediately establishes intimacy, without the formalintroductions, as though we are just looking in on a scene that has been there before we looked in. The assumption of knowledge the reader/listener does not really have, inevitably raising a half-conscious question 'What men?', 'What club?' establishes expectancy. The reader/listener is not already receptive but actively interested.

There is also another more specialized use of the: 'the old man', if he is never named more specifically, will remain an archetypal figure, as in Hemingway's The Old Man and the Sea.[5]

Practice Assignments

I. Convert the following singular nouns into the plural number and convert the plural nouns into the singular number. Some of the nouns cannot be converted.

alumna; analysis; apparatus; archives; bases; beer; booth; brethren; child; credentials; curriculum; data; deer; dilettanti; formula; geese; half; hero; house; index; lice; mathematics; means; memorandum; moose; mouse; phenomenon; physics; story; thesis; tooth; university; woman

II.In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the highlighted noun is count or non-count.

1. The board will meet tomorrow to consider your application.

2. The information you gave to the detective was very misleading.

3. I thought it was a strange comment to make.

4. Smoking damages your health.

5. Jean is studying music at college.

6. I'll have a brandy, please.

III. The following nouns have two plural forms, each form with its own meaning. Write sentences to reflect both meanings.

Example

atlas [plural atlases or atlantes]

"Atlases" is used to refer to collections of maps. In architecture, where atlas is a standing or kneeling figure used as a column, the plural form of the word is "atlantes."

appendix [plural appendices or appendixes]

opus [plural opera or opuses]

cactus [plural cacti or cactuses]

genius [plural geniuses or genii]

index [plural indices or indexes]

IV.In the following opening use plural forms of the nouns where possible:

Excellency, Mr. Rector, Mr. Assistant Rector, fellow citizen, representative of the committee, honourable member, distinguished guest, dear friend, lady and gentleman!

V.Edit the following excerpt to make it unbiased. Insert articles a/an/the where necessary.

__ …ritual accompanying all airline flights is __ lecture given by __ stewardess concerning "additional safety features" of __ airliner. After explaining __ seat belt operating instructions, emergency exits, and seat cushion "flotation devices," she gives __ instructions as what to do if there should be "__ sudden change in __ cabin pressure." (This is __ nice way of describing what happens if __ plane develops __ hole in which everything that is not tied down along with all __ breathable air is sucked out in __ less than 2 seconds!) She then tells what should take place "in __ rare event that such __ event should occur": 1) __ oxygen mask will automatically drop from overhead; 2) you should extinguish all smoking materials; 3) place __ mask down over your nose and __ mouth, and; 4) breath normally (???).

When flying I have often watched around me as __ stewardess gives these emergency procedures. Most never even look up from their books or magazines. Many continue their conversations with travelling companions, not even glancing up to see where __ nearest emergency exit is located.

Why such __ apathy? I believe that most passengers are convinced that this safety lecture doesn't apply to them. They have flown many times in __ past and never needed __ oxygen mask or __ emergency exit. They feel safe–perhaps too safe. How different would __ same lecture be if, once airborne, __ stewardess preceded her speech by saying, "__ Captain has just radioed __ tower that __ plane has developed __ serious problem. We will momentarily be losing __ cabin pressure and we will attempt __ emergency landing followed by __ immediate evacuation."

Could you imagine __ difference if she then shared __ same speech she normally gives before take off? She would have everyone's undivided attention. (I know I'd take notes!) Each person would listen as if their life depended on it - and indeed, it may.[6]

Section 4. INTRODUCTIONS

A first assignment is a speech to introduce yourself, a classmate, or a famous person whom you imagine inviting to class. You can easily adapt the structure of the one-point speech to a speech of introduction if you avoid reciting all the details of the person’s biography. Such a recitation would have no central theme; besides lacking a sense of unity, the speech would be dull. Instead, select a key aspect of the individual’s experience, and devise your thesis from that. Then follow the structure of the one-point speech.

For example, you might open with a statement such as "Unlike most of us, John Patterson has never lived out of this town." The contrast between John and his classmates should capture the audience’s attention and interest. This achieves the "Wake up!" function of the one-point speech. (You can put yourself in the place of John to talk about yourself.)

Your next statement might be, "John’s experience can give us insight into the sense of roots that many of our ancestors had but most of us lack today." This identifies how you will make John’s experience relevant to the audience, fulfilling the "This concerns you" step in the one-point speech. Then you might state the thesis: "This town is so much a part of John’s identity that he cannot imagine himself apart from it." This step matches "Generally speaking" in the one-point speech. It both states the idea that you intend to establish and provides a natural transition to the body of the speech.

The next step is to support this thesis. You might do it by referring to key events in John’s life that are closely identified with the town: growing up where everyone knew everyone else, participating in parades and celebrations, living as an adult in the same house that he occupied as a child, and watching things change around him as others moved into or out of town.

These experiences are the supporting material, corresponding to "For example" in the one-point speech. Decide which order to present them in and how much detail to provide.

Finally, conclude by answering the implicit question "So what?" You might say something like, "So, the next time you read statistics about how often people move, or the next time you think about how many careers you might have during your life, remember that some people choose to nurture their roots where they stand. John Patterson is a thriving example."

Grammar Focus: The Sentence

In Introduction to this book you found two alternative ways, formal and informal, of introducing yourself and the subject of your presentation depending on the event and your audience. However, the key point at this stage is not only what to say, but also how to say it. Nervousness accompanying the situation might cause a non-native speaker to forget the basics of English and start building sentences according to his or her native language patterns, which in many cases differ from the English standards. The most common mistakes at this point are usually connected with the sentence structure in English.

THE SENTENCE.A group of words that express a complete mean­ing makes a sentence. In order to have a mean­ing, two elements are necessary: a subject, a person or thing to speak about, and a predicate, something to say about the person or thing.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. No sentence can exist without both subject and predicate.

RECOGNIZING SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.In order to decide which word or words make up the subject, simply ask:Whom or what are we speaking about?

Barking dogs never bite.

Plainly, dogs are here spoken about; dogs, therefore, is the subject.

Barking simply de­scribes the subject further.

In order to decide which word or words make up the predicate, simply ask: What is said about the subject?

A fool and his money are soon parted,

What is said about the subject (a fool and his money)? The answer, are soon parted, makes up the predicate.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.Sentences have three purposes: to state, to ask, and to command.

1. Sentences that state. A sentence that makes a statement (or denies it) is called a declarative sentence.

I am Liz Brown.

This morning I'm going to be talking to you about the problems of privatization.

My aim is to focus your attention on some of the difficulties we're going to face.

2. Sentences that ask. A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.

How many people here this morning hate going to meetings? Do you think it is possible to smoothly run a company without them?

3. Sentences that command. A sentence that expresses a command is called an imperative sentence.

Take the step.

Think. Observe. Ask. Experiment. Dare. Pursue. Aggravate. Surprise. Shock. Amaze. Astonish. Succeed. And, above all, do it on your own terms.[7]

Notes on Usage

To understand what makes a good sentence, it is important to understand one principle: a sentence, at its very basic level, is about actors and actions. As such, the subject of a sentence should point clearly to the actor, and the verb of the sentence should describe the important action.

This principle might seem so obvious to you that you do not think that it warrants further discussion. But think again. Look at the following sentence, and then try to determine, in a nutshell, what is wrong with it:

There was uncertainty in President Clinton's mind about the intention of the Russians to disarm their nuclear weapons.

This sentence has no grammatical errors. But certainly it lumbers along, without any force. Now consider the following sentence:

President Clinton remained unconvinced that the Russians intended to disarm their nuclear weapons.

What changes does this sentence make? We can point to the more obvious changes: omitting the "there is" phrase; replacing the wimpy "uncertainty" with the more powerful "remained unconvinced"; replacing the abstract noun "intention" with the stronger verb "intended." But what principle governs these many changes? Precisely the one mentioned earlier: that the actor in a sentence should serve as the sentence's subject, and the action should be illustrated forcefully in the sentence's verbs.

Whenever you feel that your prose is confusing or hard to follow, find the actors and the actions of your sentences. Is the actor the subject of your sentence? Is the action a verb? If not, rewrite your sentence accordingly.[8]

Practice Assignments

Short Speech of Introduction/Welcome.Develop a 'model' short speech of introduction/welcome of a guest speaker, with which you will introduce (using their real names) other students from the group in practice situations. The (unscripted) model must be so clearly in mind that it becomes 'instinctive' with only minor modification for the welcoming of a speaker. The model must at minimum (a) introduce the situation to which you are presenting the speaker; (b) explicitly mention the speaker by name as well as his/her title and brief background, mentioning how pleased you are that (s)he is here; (c) review briefly what the audience is expected to gain from the forthcoming presentation; and (d) then present the speaker (introducee). With this assignment, gestures and controlled movement to, from and on the podium platform enter as performance requirements (in addition to the previous requirements). SwC:271-274; HCH:21-22

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