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Money SupplyMeasures
Money supply is the amount of money freely circulating in an economy. Money supply is made up of currency and bank deposits. Economists divide money into four categories known as measures: Ml, M2, M3, and L.
This breakdown measures the money supply by degree of liquidity. Liquidity refers to how easy it is to convert money into cash — the most liquid form of money. Checking accounts represent the next most liquid form because money in a checking account can be easily withdrawn by writing a check. Savings accounts are slightly more difficult to access than checking accounts and therefore are less liquid. Certificates of deposit1 are still less liquid because money cannot be withdrawn before a specified date without a penalty.
Each measure of money includes a portion of the money supply that is more liquid than the next measure - that is, Ml is more liquid than M2. The measures are cumulative; each measure includes the forms of money (cash, savings accounts, US treasury bonds2, etc.) counted in the previous measure, plus additional, less liquid forms. For example, M2 includes Ml plus certain additions.
Ml is the most liquid measure and includes cash, travellers' checks3, and demand deposits — checking accounts from which money can be withdrawn on demand. In 1994 Ml in the United States accounted for over $1.1 trillion on a daily basis. M2 is less liquid. It consists of Ml plus savings deposits of $100,000 or less. M3 consists of M2 plus savings deposits of more than $100,000. L consists of M3 plus government securities, such as savings bonds4 and treasury notes5.
In the United States, money supply is regulated by the Federal Reserve Bank in one of three ways: buying and selling government securities; raising or lowering banks' required reserve ratio (percentage of their total deposits that banks must maintain at Federal Reserve Banks); and raising or lowering the discount rate (interest rate banks pay to borrow money from the Federal Reserve).
Money supply is an important aspect of government monetary policy. Governments use monetary policy, alongside fiscal policy (which is concerned with taxation and spending), to maintain economic growth, high employment, and low inflation. In the United States, monetary policy is determined by the Federal Reserve's Board of Governors6.
Пояснения к тексту 4
1. certificates of deposit — свободно обращающиеся депозитные сертификаты {cвидетельство о некоторой депонированной в банк сумме, подлежащей выплате вкладчику)
2. treasury bonds — долгосрочные казначейские обязательства (американские государственные долгосрочные ценные бумаги, реализуемые в открытой продаже, срок погашения по которым не более пяти лет)
3. travellers’ checks — дорожные чеки
4. savings bonds — сберегательные облигации (американские высокодоходные долгосрочные ценные бумаги; сроки погашения облигаций 8-10лет) treasury notes — казначейские билеты, налоговые сертификаты (долгосрочные ценные бумаги правительства США, срок выплат по которым наступает от одного года до пяти лет)
5. Federal Reserve's Board of Governors — Совет управляющих Федеральной резервной системы США
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Shoe-Leather Costs
Interest rates usually rise with inflation to maintain the real rate of interest. The interest rate being the opportunity cost of holding money, people hold less money balances (зд. запас наличных денег) when inflation is higher.
When high interest money make people economize on holding real money balances, society must use a greater quantity of resources in undertaking transactions and therefore has less resources for production and consumption °f goods and services. We call this the shoe-leather cost of higher inflation.
With higher inflation and interest rates, people will hold less of their wealth lri cash and more of it in interest-bearing assets such as bank accounts. Instead of withdrawing £ 100 at a time from an interest-bearing bank account and visiting the bank only once a month, people will withdraw £20 a time but visit the bank five times a month. This allows people to hold less of their wealth in non- interest - bearing cash, but it makes people wear out their shoe- leather in walking to the bank more frequently.
Shoe-leather costs stand for all the extra time and effort people put into transacting when they try to get by with lower cash balances.
Внеаудиторное чтение 5
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