Exercise 2. a) Find the antonyms
| A | B |
| voluntary flex soft separated to deliver to propel | extend to block to take away involuntary connected hard |
b) Fill in the gaps with the words from the table above.
1.… muscles can contract and pull, but they cannot push.
2. Smooth muscles maintain continence of the bladder and … food through the bowel.
3. A rich capillary distribution helps to … oxygen to muscles.
4. Voluntary muscles can contract and pull, but they cannot push, so they must work in pairs that … and … .
5. Muscle is a … tissue in the body of humans and animals.
Exercise 3. Translate the derivatives.
1. Muscle, muscular, musculature, musculation.
2. To contract, contracted, contracting, contractile, contraction.
3. To connect, connecting, connection, connective.
4. Continuous, to continue, continuance, continuing, continual.
Exercise 4.Translate the following sentences into English.
1. По структуре и функции мышцы можно разделить на три группы. 2. Гладкие мышцы сокращаются непроизвольно. 3. Соединительная ткань гладких мышц включает нервы и кровеносные сосуды. 4. Поперечно-полосатые мышцы реагируют на изменения в окружающей среде. 5. Волокна сердечной мышцы непрерывны. 6. Регуляцию мочеиспускания осуществляет гладкая мускулатура.
Exercise 5. Give the English equivalents of the Russian words in brackets.
1. Muscle is (мягкая ткань) in the body of humans and animals. 2. Muscles are responsible for maintaining (осанка) and physical movements. 3. Muscles can be under (произвольный) or (непроизвольный) control. 4. Smooth (visceral) muscles can (сокращаться) slowly. 5. Smooth muscles maintain (регуляция мочеиспускания) of the bladder and (продвигать) food through (кишечник). 6. Smooth muscle (волокна) are bound into (пучки) by connective tissue. 7. When muscles contract, they (тянуть) the tendons. 8. The muscles must work in pairs that (сгибаться) and (разгибаться).
Exercise 6. Complete the following sentences. Choose the ending according to the text.
1. Muscles are responsible for maintaining movement of internal organs such as… 2. The word muscle is derived from the Latin term musculus, meaning … . 3. Tendons connect soft contracting muscles to … . 4. Voluntary muscles, such as those found in the arms and legs, can be controlled by … . 5. There are three main types of muscular tissue that we identify and classify on the basis of … . 6. … make up the walls of the internal organs such as those of the blood vessels, the digestive tract, and the bladder. 7. Skeletal muscles attach to bones by means of … . 8. A rich capillary distribution helps to deliver … to muscles.
9. Cardiac (heart) muscle is a cross between … .
Exercise 7. The answers to the following questions are the summary of the text. Answer these questions and give the summary of the text.
1. What is a muscle?
2. What are the main functions of muscles?
3. What is the meaning of the word muscle?
4. What is the difference between voluntary muscles and involuntary muscles?
5. What are the main types of muscular tissue?
6. What do you know about the work of smooth muscles?
7. What do we sometimes call smooth muscles?
8. What is another name for striated muscles?
9. How do striated muscles work?
10. What is the difference between cardiac and skeletal muscles?
Exercise 8. Read the text and complete the table giving the definitions of the muscles.
Vertebrate muscles are given names derived from Latin according to their attachments. In this system the Latin names of the bony points of attachment are either joined, or they may be named for their form or their gross function. There are several standard terms that describe form and function. A muscle may have more than one point of origin; thus, it may be described as having, for example, two “heads,” as in biceps femoris(bi- for two,-ceps or heads, femoris meaning “of the femur”). It may be long, longus, or short, brevis. It may run transversely across a body segment, transversus, or obliquely, obliquus. It may lie close to the surface, superficialis, or deep, profundus. In describing function, lexors are muscles that tend to close the angle made by the two bones to which they are attached; extensorstend to increase the angle. Adductors pull a bone or cartilage closer to the axis of the body, or limb, while abductors pull away from the axis. Rotators turn one bone or cartilage with respect to another or with respect to the midline. Pronators turn the sole of the foot or the palm of the hand to face the ground, while the opposite function is performed supinators. Constrictors and sphincters diminish the volume of spaces or the area of structures, and dilators increase them.
| Type of the muscles according to the function | Definition | Russian equivalent | Transcription |
| flexors | are muscles that tend to close the angle made by the two bones | сгибатели | [ˈfleksə] |
| extensors | разгибатели | [ ɪkˈstentsə ] | |
| adductors | приводящие мышцы | [ ædˈdʌktə ] | |
| abductors | отводящие мышцы | [ æbˈdʌktə ] | |
| rotators | мышцы, которые осуществляют вращение конечности или какого - либо сегмента тела. | [ reʊˈteɪtə ] | |
| pronators | мышцы, вращающие внутрь | [ preʊˈneɪtə] | |
| supinators | мышцы, вращающие наружу | [ suːpɪˈneɪtə ] | |
| constrictors | мышцы, сжимающие какой либо орган или заставляющие сокращаться полый орган или его часть (констриктор) | [ kənˈstrɪktə ] | |
| dilators | расширяющие мышцы (дилататор) | [ dɪˈleɪtə ] |
Exercise 9. Read the text and prepare the talk “Tendons and Ligaments : How to Prevent Tendon/Ligament Injury” (4-5 min).
Ligaments and tendons are part of the musculoskeletal system, with ligaments attaching bones to bones and tendons muscles to bones. They each serve very important functions to the joints and bones. Ligaments and tendons are made of dense layered collagen fibers, called fibrous connective tissue. Although collagenous tissues are sturdy, applying excessive force on either the ligament or tendon can cause serious injuries. Ligaments serve as connectors, linking the ends of bones together at a joint. The joints allow for the performance of simple and complex motions throughout the body, and ligaments come in a variety of sizes and shapes to support, strengthen and stabilize the joints.
Tendons attach muscles to bones. Tendons aid in the movement of bones by transmitting force from the muscle to the bone. Tendons aid in a wide range of motion and act to resist pressures; hence, it is important that they vary in shape and size.
Rupture of Ligament
When ligaments receive force greater than their resistance capacity, the collagenous tissue will over-stretch or tear, either partially or completely, thus resulting in injuries. A “stretched or torn ligament," also known as sprain, occurs most frequently in the ankle and wrist. The healing process involves three overlapping phases1. In the first phase, bleeding and clotting of blood2occur. Inflammation of tissues also takes place at the injury site. In the second phase, the matrix and fibroblastic cells3replicate excessively, and in the final phase, the matrix remodels itself and matures over time.
Rupture of Tendon
Similar to the ligaments, when tendons receive force greater than their resistance capacity, injuries will result with the tearing and over-stretching of tissues. A strain, which refers to a “stretched or torn tendon” can develop over time or occur abruptly. The healing process of tendon injuries involves three simultaneously occurring phases. In the first phase, inflammation at the injury site occurs and the growth of new blood vessels and collagen begins. In the second phase, the rapid reproduction of reticular fibers4occurs at its maximum level, and in the final phase, remodeling occurs. New cells will differentiate into fibrous tissue and will eventually mature into a scar-like tendon tissue5.
Notes
1. overlapping phases - частично перекрывающиеся фазы
2. bleeding and clotting of blood - кровотечение и свёртывание крови
3. matrix and fibroblastic cells - матричные и фибробластные клетки
4. reticular fibers - ретикулярное волокно
5. scar-like tendon tissue - рубцовая сухожильная ткань
VOCABULARY LIST TO TEXT B
| сaudal adj | [ ˈkɔːdəl] | каудальный |
| facilitate v | [ fəˈsɪlɪteɪt] | содействовать |
| flick v | [ flɪk] | резко ударять |
| enact v | [ ɪˈnækt] | привести в действие |
| momentum n | [ məˈmetəm] | импульс |
| primal adj | [ ˈpraɪ.məl] | первобытный |
| twitch v | [ twɪtʃ] | подергивать |
| stalk v | [ stɔːk] | выслеживать |
| sway v | [ sweɪ] | раскачивать |
| script n | [ skrɪpt] | схема поведения, хранящаяся в мозгу |
| swish v | [ swɪʃ] | бить хвостом |
| wag v | [ wæɡ] | вилять |
| wavy adj | [ ˈweɪvi] | волнообразный |
| wiggle v | [ ˈwɪɡl̩ ] | раскачивать |
TEXT B
CAT TAILS
Read the text to find out:
-a number of bones in cats’ tail;
-the location of tail muscles;
- type of muscle to which caudal muscles belong;
-when cats sway back and forth their tails;
- types of emotional response cat's tail movements signify;
-if your cat has the ability to trigger voluntary muscles and make his tail move.
You can tell a lot by looking at your cat's tail - much more than just which way he's facing. Cats flick, twitch, swish and wiggle their tails to express a range of moods and emotions. Some of these movements are voluntary, but others seem to require little conscious thought.
Cat tails are more complex than meets the eye. Depending on the breed, your cat has 18 to 23 bones in his tail, which is actually an extension of his spine. Tail muscles rest below the lumbar vertebrae, lower-back sacrum and tail vertebrae and attach via tendons. Although this facilitates articulate movements, part of the tail's musculature also is associated with the rectum, anus and pelvic diaphragm.
Caudal muscles are striated and, as such, afford voluntary movement, although some conditions, mental or physical, may cause involuntary movements. The tail nerves collect in a bundle together with those from his hind legs and rear before they collect into the spinal cord. So, on the one hand, your cat's tail can be articulated with great nuance. On the other hand, it's strongly linked to other movements.
If you've ever watched your cat stalk a bird from a windowsill, you know your friendly feline is actually an accomplished hunter. You also probably know his tail sways back and forth when he's in hunting mode. This movement, which starts as a voluntary thought, appears to continue as a primal brain script.
While many of your cat's tail movements signify emotional responses - a wide wiggle is agitation, a sharp twitch is anger, a raised, wavy tail is happiness - others are more pragmatic. Your cat uses his tail as a counterweight, just like a tightrope walker uses her pole.
Cat tails are mood rings. Different wiggles mean different things, whether it's the cat wagging the tail or the tail wagging the cat. Biologically, your cat clearly has the ability to trigger voluntary muscles and make his tail move. Still, once engaged in higher-level thinking, primitive scripts appear to run on their own momentum, or when enacted by surprise events. So does your cat have to think to wiggle his tail? It appears he can do that, but that it requires so little thought that it blurs the line between conscious and unconscious thought.
Exercise 10. Look through the text to find out who this text is intended for:
1) general reader;
2) students in veterinary medicine;
3) professional veterinarians.
Exercise 11. Concentrate on discovering the author’s main idea. Select the statement which best expresses the author’s main idea:
1. Cats wag their tails for many reasons. In most cases, it's simply for communication purposes.
2. A cat's tail is an extension of his body, so it's used in maintaining balance.
3. To wiggle the tail requires so little thought that it blurs the line between conscious and unconscious thought.
Exercise 12. The answers to the following questions are the summary of the text. Answer these questions and give the summary of the text.
1. What movements of cat’s tail do you know?
2. Are some of these movements voluntary?
3. Where do tail muscles rest?
4. How do tail muscles attach tail vertebrae?
5. What type of muscles are caudal muscles?
6. Can the cat's tail be articulated with great nuance?
7. What does the cat’s tail do when the cat is in hunting mode? Do the movements start as a voluntary thought? Do these movements continue as a primal brain script?
8. What emotional responses do cat's tail movements signify?
9. Does your cat biologically have the ability to trigger voluntary muscles and make his tail move?
10. So, does your cat have to think to wiggle his tail?
Exercise 13. Exchange your opinions about the author’s approach to the nature of cat's tail activity.
Work in pairs.
Exercise 14. Make a report in writing (1 page) on the topic “What Different Wags Mean”. Visit the links:
http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/201112/what-dog-s-tail-wags-really-mean-some-new-scientific-data
http://www.pet360.com/cat/behavior-and-training/cat-tail-wagging-what-different-wags-mean/l7vJPGbFh0Ob-jnsSeMhVg
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/left-or-right-tail-wags-elicit-different-emotional-responses-from-dogs/
UNIT 4
ANIMAL NUTRITION
VOCABULARY LIST TO TEXT A
| canine n | [ˈkeɪnaɪn] | клык |
| carnassial adj | [kɑːˈnæsɪəl] | плотоядный, хищный зуб |
| carnivore n | [ˈkɑːnɪvɔː] | плотоядный |
| сhew v | [ tʃuː] | жевать |
| digestion n | [ daɪˈdʒestʃən ] | пищеварение |
| dissolve v | [ dɪˈzɒlv ] | растворять |
| fermentation n | [ fɜːmenˈteɪʃn ] | брожение |
| facultative adj | [ˈfækltətɪv] | факультативный, необязательный |
| herbivore n | [ ˈhɜːbɪvɔː] | травоядный |
| invertebrate n | [ ɪnˈvɜːtɪbrət] | беспозвоночный |
| incisor n | [ ɪnˈsaɪzər] | резец |
| jaw n | [ dʒɔː ] | челюсть |
| molar n | [ ˈməʊlər ] | коренной зуб |
| mouthful n | [ ˈmaʊθ.fʊl] | кусок |
| obligate adj | [ˈɒblɪɡeɪt] | облигатный, обязательный |
| omnivore n | [ˈɒmnɪvɔː] | всеядный |
| prey n | [ preɪ ] | добыча |
| ridge n | [ rɪdʒ ] | бугорок |
| slice v | [ slaɪs ] | резать пластинами |
| starch n | [ stɑːtʃ ] | крахмал |
| strip v | [ strɪp ] | отдирать |
| symbiotic adj | [ˌsɪmbaɪˈəʊtɪk] | симбиотический |
Match the English names of animals with their Russian equivalents:
cricket [ˈkrɪkɪt] рак
crayfish [ˈkreɪfɪʃ ] акула
сockroach [ ˈkɒkrəʊtʃ] сверчок
caterpillar [ˈkætəpɪlər] божья коровка
shark [ ʃɑːk ] олень
deer [ dɪə ] гусеница
ladybug[ˈleɪdɪbʌɡ] таракан
TEXT A