By an adjective. прикметник
He's awfully dearand unselfish.(Galsworthy)
Very often the predicative expressed by an adjective in English does not correspond to an adjective in Russian. It often corresponds to an adverb, serving as an adverbial modifier. Дуже часто ім. частина присудка виражена прикметником в англійській не відповідає прикметникам в російській мові. Вона часто відповідає прислівникам, які виступають як обставина.
In this connection particular attention should be paid to the following verbs as they are very often used in everyday English: to look, to feel, to sound, to smell, to taste.
The dinner smells delicious.Обед пахнет восхитительно.
When she got angry, her voice Когда она сердилась, ее голос
sounded shrill.звучал пронзительно.
She looks bad.Она выглядит" плохо.
Не feels bad.Он чувствует себя плохо.
This orange tastes bitter.Этот апельсин горький.
As is seen from the examples given above all these predicative adjectives (with the exception of the one that follows the verb to taste) are rendered by adverbs in Russian.
3. By a pronoun (займенник)—personal, possessive, negative, interrogative, reflexive, indefinite, defining.
It was he.The guns were his.(London) You are nobody.(London) Why? Whatis he?
But she was herselfagain, brushing her tears away.(Lindsay)
As a rule the pronoun in the function of a predicative is in the nominative case, but in Modern English there is a marked tendency to use personal pronouns in the objective case, especially the personal pronoun. It's me,Matt.(Lindsay) Someone said, "That's him!"
By a word of the category of state.
He was aware all the time of the stringy tie beneath the mackintosh, and the frayed sleeves ... (Greene) But I'm afraid Ican't keep the man.(Galsworthy)
By a numeral, cardinal or ordinal.
I'm only 46. (Shaw)
Mr. Snodgrass was the firstto break the astonished silence. (Dickens)
By a prepositional phrase. Прийменникова фраза.
The things were outside her experience.(Wells) After all, the little chap wason the side of the Capital.(Galsworthy)
By an infinitive, infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction.
June's first thought was to go away.(Galsworthy)
His first act was to bolt the door on the inside.(Dickens)
The best thing is for you to move in with me.(Abrahams)
By a gerund, gerundial phrase, or gerundial construction.
My favourite sport is swimming.
The great secret, Eliza, is not having bad manners or good manners or any other, particular sort of manners,but having the same manners for all human souls.(Shaw)
The topic of their conversation was their going on an expedition.
By Participle II or very seldom Participle I; the latter is generally adjectivized.
He was surprisedat the sound of his own voice.(London)
Here was change, indeed! I fell back astoundedin my chair.(Buck)
It is very distressingto me, sir, to give this information.(Dickens)
The moment was soothingto his sore spirit.(Sanborn)
By an adverb. прислівник
That was all. It was enoughthe way she said it.(Sanborn)
49. The Link verbs as a compound nominal predicate.
The compound nominal predicate denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject (e. g. He is tired, The book is interesting), or the class of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs (e. g.She is a student).
Складний іменний присудок позначає стан або якість людини або речі, виражені підметом, або клас осіб або речей, до яких ця людина або річ належить.
The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verband a predicative(the latter is also called the nominal part of the predicate). Складний іменний присудок складається з дієслова зв'язки і присудка.
The link verb expresses the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood, sometimes voice. Дієслова звязки виражають словесні категорії особи, числа, часу, аспекту, настрою, іноді голосу.
Most link verbs to some extent preserve their meaning. Більшість дієслів звязок у якійсь мірі зберегти своє значення.
The following are the most common of these link verbs: to appear, to get, to grow, to continue, to feel, to keep, to look, to turn, to hold, to prove, to turn out, to loom, to rank, to remain, to run, to seem, to smell, to taste, to fall, to stand, to go, to work.
His wife sighed and remainedsilent.(London)
Harris grew more cheerful. (Jerome)
At my age I getnervous.(Galsworthy)
He soon fellfast asleep in my arms, sobbing at longer intervals.(Dickens)
The boat seemedstuffy.(Jerome)
She, for her part, feltrecessive and thence evasive.(Dreiser)
Many of these verbs can be used both as verbs of complete predication fully preserving their concrete meaning and as link verbs.
There are some verbs which, though fully preserving their concrete meaning, perform the function of link verbs: they are used with a predicative and form a compound nominal predicate.
Є деякі дієслова, які, хоча і повністю зберігаючи своє конкретне значення, виконують функцію сполучних дієслів: вони використовуються з присудком і утворюють складний іменний присудок.
Here belong: to lie, to sit, to die, to marry, to return, to leave, to come, to stand, to fall, to go, etc.
After many adventures I and a little girl laysenseless in the Bad Lands. (Haggard)
The poor woman satamazed.(Trollope)
I stoodtransfixed with awe and joy.(Haggard)
Here the important thing is not that the speaker stood but that he stood transfixed with awe and joy. Тут головне не те, що спікер стояв, але що він стояв завмерши з благоговінням і радістю.
Happily, too, the greater part of the boys came backlow-spirited.(Dickens)
Sometimes the predicative does not immediately follow these verbs but is separated from them by an adverbial.
One evening she camehome elated. (0. Henry)
Thus the same verb when used as a link verb may either lose its meaning or fully preserve it.
Irene's hair was going gray. (Galsworthy) (link verb)
Tom wenthomemiserable. (Twain) (notional verb performing the function of a link verb)
According to their meaning link verbs can be divided into two large groups:
(1) link verbs of beingand remaining; буття та інші;
(2) link verbs of becoming. становлення.
The first group comprises such verbs as to be, to remain, to keep, to continue, to look, to smell, to stand, to sit, to lie, to shine, to seem, to prove, to appear, etc. The latter three verbs have some modal colouring.
Cotman wasa nice-looking fellow, of thirty perhaps ...(Maugham)
Do not delay, there is no time. Teacher Williams liesdead, already. (Buck)
The Western powers stoodaloof.(Buck)
Idris, aged five, at a little desk all by himself near the fire, was lookingextraordinarily pleased with life.(Cronin)
He feltexhausted not with physical fatigue, but with the weight of vague burdens. (Lindsay)
Either course seemedunthinkable, without any connection with himself. (Lindsay)
The door remainedwide open; the voices insidewerelouder than ever. (Priestley)
... the dancingcontinuesfast and furious.(Douglas)
That soundsnot unsatisfactory.(Wilde)
The second group comprises such verbs as to become, to get, to grow, to come, to go, to leave, to run, to turn, to make, etc.
Oh, Adolphus Cusins will makea very good husband.(Shaw)
This becomesuninteresting, however, after a time.(Jerome)
How can I getmarried without my best man?(Lindsay)
And every month of his life he grewhandsomer and more interesting.(Burnett)
The great day dawnedmisty, and overcast.(Du Maurier)
50. The Object as the secondary part of the sentence. Types of Objects.
The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun.
Додаток представляє собою другорядний член речення, який довершує чи обмежує значення дієслова або іноді прикметника, слова, що позначає стан, або іменника.
Haviland closed the door. (Wilson) I was very proud of it. (Braddon)
He had never liked Soames. He now held him responsible for Bosinney's death.
"You are afraid of dying," said Bing. (Heym)
There are three kinds of objects in English: the direct object, the indirect, and the cognate object. (прямий, непрямий і споріднений).
The direct object.
The direct object is used after transitive verbs with which it is closely connected as it denotes a person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb. It is used without any preposition. Прямий додаток використовується після перехідних (проміжних) дієслів, з якими він тісно пов'язаний, так як вони позначають особу або предмет, безпосередньо уражених від дії дієслова. Він використовується без прийменників.
Прямий додаток — це додаток, що означає предмет, на який безпосередньо переходить дія.
Again I moved my headnegatively. (Braddon)
If we compare "Russian and English we shall see that in English there are more verbs taking a direct object than in Russian. This is due to the loss of case inflexions in English, the result of which is that the old Accusative and Dative have assumed the same form.
Thus, if a transitive verb takes only one object expressed by a noun or pronoun without a preposition, it is always a direct object.
Якщо перехідне дієслово приймає тільки один додаток, виражений іменником або займенником без прийменника, він завжди є прямим додатком.
I help my brotherin his work.
I helped him.Я помогал ему. I envied him.Я завидовал ему.
Он сел на лошадь.Не mounted the horse.Он играет в шахматы.Не plays chess.
There are a few English verbs which can have two direct objects.
I asked him his name. Forgive me this question.She taught them French.
The indirect object.
The indirect object denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed. There are also cases when it denotes a thing.
Непрямий додаток позначає живу істоту, до якої дія дієслова направлена. Є також випадки, коли воно позначає річ.
There are two types of indirect object:
1.The indirect object of the first type, which expresses the addressee of the action.
She gave himan interesting book to read.
Don't forget to buy hima toy on his birthday. He забудьте купить ему игрушку ко дню рождения.
N o t e.—There are three verbs which may take an indirect object without any direct object. In this case the indirect object is used with the preposition to. These verbs are:to read, to writе, to sing.
When I was ill she often read to me. Won't you sing to me?
Write to meas often as you can.
There is, however, a tendency in Modern English to use no preposition with the verb to write. Write meas often as you can.
2.The indirect object of the second type, which is more frequently used with intransitive verbs than with transitive ones and which does not always express the addressee' of the action. Непрямий додаток другого типу, який частіше використовується з діяловами, ніж з перехідними дієсловами і який не завжди висловлює адресата дії.
An idea had occurred to Soames. (Galsworthy)
My childhood was passed with a grandmother. (Dickens)
I want to thank you for your kindness.
I am uneasy about it. She was not awareof his being there.
Her behaviour to her friendswas irreproachable.
Yates's mind was like a cauldron in which boiled the general tension in town, the expectation of getting to Yasha. (Heym)
The complex object.
The complex object consists of two components, of which the second stands in predicate relation to the first. The two components form an indivisible unit and consequently must be regarded as one part of the sentence. The complex object can be non-prepositional and prepositional.
Комплексний додаток складається з двох компонентів, з яких друга знаходиться в присудку по відношенню до першої. Ці два компоненти є невід'ємною одиницею і, отже, повинні розглядатися як одна частина речення. Комплексний додаток може бути безприйменниковим і прийменниковим.
I observed Agnes turn pale. Thus these two waited with impatience for the three years to be over.
The first component of the complex object is a noun in the common case or in the possessive case, a personal pronoun in the objective case, or a possessive pronoun; the second is an infinitive, a participle, a gerund, seldom a noun, an adjective, a word denoting state, or a prepositional phrase.
He hated her to workin the boarding house. (Prichard) He could see the man and Great Beaver talking together. (London) She thinks herself very clever.
As he spoke, he felt himself unusually on edge.(Lindsay)
The cognate object.
There is a special kind of object in English which has the following peculiarities.
1.It is used with intransitive verbs though it has no preposition. Він використовується неперехідними дієсловами, хоча він не має прийменників.
2.It is expressed by a noun which is either of the same root as the verb or is similar to it in meaning. Він виражається іменником, яке є або того ж кореня як і дієслово або схожий на нього за змістом.
3.It is almost regularly attended by an attribute with which it forms a combination that is close in meaning to an adverbial modifier:to live a happy life – to life happily. Він такоє регулярно "співпрацює" з означенням, з якою він утворює комбінацію, яка близька за змістом до обставини.
The cognate object is generally used in such combinations as: to smile a sad smile, to laugh a bitter laugh, to die a violent death, etc.
But she died a dreadful death,poor soul.. (Collins) Но она погибла ужасной смертью, бедняжка..
For the next four days he lived a simple and blameless lifeon thin captain's biscuits. В течение последующих четырех дней он жил простой непорочной жизнью и питался постными капитанскими сухарями.
51. The Attribute as the secondary part of the sentence. The position of Attributes.
The attributeis a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character. Означення це другорядний член речення, який кваліфікує іменник, займенник, або будь-яку іншу частину мови, яка має номінальний характер.
An attribute can be either in pre-position or in post-position to the word it modifies.
What did she do with herself.. in that littlehole? (Galsworthy)
Under a tree opposite Knightsbridge Barracks..he took out once more the morocco case.
As a result of the loss of inflexions, the attribute in English, as distinct from Russian, does not agree with the word it modifies in number, case, or gender. It may be expressed by almost any part of speech. В результаті втрати закінчень, означення англійською мовою, на відміну від російської, не узгоджується зі словом що він modifies в числі, відміноку, або статі.
The position of an attribute depends on the following:
1. The morphological nature of the attribute. Adjectives, participles, gerunds, nouns in the common and the possessive cases, pronouns, ordinal numerals, and quotation nouns generally premodify the headword.
1. Морфологічні характер означення. Прикметники, дієприкметники, дієприслівники, іменники в загальних і присвійних відмінках, займенники, порядкові числівники, іменники і цитати, як правило premodify головне слово.
He was a little man, with a thin voice.
Val had just changed out of riding clothesand was on his way to the party.
The apple trees were in blossom.
It’s not always easy to understand a child’s language.
The third attempt gave no result.
His eyes travelled over the landscape attheir feet.
Adverbs, statives, cardinal numerals and infinitives are generally postmodifying attributes. Прислівники, statives, числівники і інфінітив, як правило, видозмінені означення.
Participles II, statives, and adjectives of verbal origin used as attributes also tend to occupy the position after the headword.
The people involved were reported to the police.
When we build cities we think about generations unborn.
Adjectives ending in -able, -ible are mostly postpositive as attributes. They often follow a headword preceded by only or a similar word with a limiting meaning.
The only person visible was the policeman (who could be seen).
The only way of escaping imaginable was through the window (which could be imagined).
2. Тhe extension of the attribute. Non-detached attributes are postmodifying when expressed by extended phrases or complexes.
The influence of extension can be illustrated by the following pairs of examples:
2. Розширення обставини. Окремі означення видозмінюються при вираженні тривалих фраз або комплексів. Вплив розширення може бути проілюстровано такими прикладами пар:
| It is a sensible suggestion. He found himself in adifficult situation. | It is a suggestion sensible in many ways. He found himself in a situation difficult from his point of view. |
Here are some more examples:
They passed the bodies of British soldiers killed that night.
It was a little log house with whitewashed walls.
He held a letter in his hands, a letter from his mother.
He appeared to be a small man of about fifty.
They chose a way longer than the other.
3. The morphological nature of the headword. Such words as demonstrative or indefinite pronouns and numerals cannot have an attribute in preposition.
Those coming first occupied the best seats.
Most of their time animals spend in search ofsomething eatable.
There is nothing interesting in this book.
All present were disgusted by his behaviour.
Note 1:
Non-detached postmodifying attributes are foundin traditional phrases borrowed from French or Latin, such as blood royal, time immemorial, the second person plural, heir apparent (heir presumptive). Lords spiritual, Lords temporal.
Note 2:
There are cases when the headword is embedded between parts of the attribute, as in:
I was told that you were the best man available (the best available man).
52. The Adverbial modifier. The semantic characteristics of the adverbial modifiers.
The adverbial modifieris a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb.
According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifiers.