The subjunctive is also used in conditional sentences (условных предложениях).
· в предложениях, которые выражают маловероятные предположения, относящиеся к настоящему или будущему времени; (in sentences that express the improbable assumptions relating to present or future time)
· в предложениях, которые выражают неосуществленные предположения, относящиеся к прошедшему времени (expressing unrealized assumptions relating to past time).
| Временная ситуация | Главное предложение (следтвие) | Придаточное предложение (условие) |
| маловероятное настоящее или будущее | Не would visit Mary I would call him up | if she was at home now. if he came tomorrow. |
| нереальное прошедшее | I should/would have done it I could have asked him to come | if I had had more time yesterday. if I had seen him last night. |
27. The Subjunctive Mood in complex sentences.
The Subjunctive Mood is used inconditional sentences to express an unreal condition (in the subordinate clause) and an unreal consequence (in the principal clause).
Щоб висловити нереальний стан (в підрядному реченні) і нереальний наслідок (у головній частині).
In sentences of unreal condition referring to the present or future the Past Subjunctive of the verbto be is used in the subordinate clause;
with other verbs the same meaning is expressed by the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood.
In the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliarywould and the Indefinite Infinitive.
The worldwould be healthier if every chemist's shop in England were demolished. (Shaw)
— Человечество было бы здоровее, если бы все аптеки в Англии были уничтожены.
Ishould kill myself today if Ididn't believe that tyranny and injustice must end. (Galsworthy)
— Я бы сегодня же покончила с собой, если бы не верила, что тирании и несправедливости придет конец.
If youhelped me, Iwould finish the work shortly.
An unreal condition referring to the future can also be expressed by the Past Subjunctive of the verbto be + Infinitive of the notional verb or the analytical Subjunctive with the mood auxiliaryshould for all the persons. Such sentences are often translated by means of 'Если бы случилось так...\ 'Случись так...'.
If Iwere to offer my home to any one among the young women engaged in my calling, they would probably be accepted. (Dickens)
— Если бы случилось так, что я предложил бы свой дом любой молодой женщине моей профессии, все это, вероятно, было бы принято. Даже охотно принято.
If in the subordinate clause the mood auxiliaryshould is used, we often find the Indicative or Imperative Mood in the principal clause.
If heshould come, ask him to wait.
— В случае, если он придет, попросите его подождать.
In sentences of unreal condition referring to the past the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood is used in the subordinate clause;
in the principal clause we find the analytical subjunctive consisting of the mood auxiliary would and the Perfect Infinitive.
If Ihad been at home last night, Iwould have heard the noise. If Ihad consulted my own interests, Ishould neverhave comehere. (Galsworthy)
— Если бы я думал только о себе, я бы никогда сюда не пришел.
There are two mixed types of sentences of unreal condition. In the first of these the condition refers to the past and the consequence refers to the present or future.
Є два змішані типи речень у нереальному стані. У першому з них умова відноситься до минулого, а наслідок відноситься до теперішнього або майбутнього.
If youhad taken your medicine yesterday, youwould be well now.
— Если бы вы вчера приняли лекарство, теперь вы были бы здоровы.
In the second type the condition refers to no particular time and the consequence to the past.
У другому типі умова не відноситься до окремого часу, а наслідок до минулого.
If hewere not so absent-minded, hewould not have mistakenyou for your sister.
— Если бы он не был такой рассеянный, он не принял бы вас за вашу сестру.
Unreal conditions may also be expressed in the following ways:
(a)But for the rain, we should go down to the country. — Если бы не дождь, мы бы поехали за город.
(b)If it were not for your help, I should not be able to finish my work in time. — Если бы не ваша помощь, я не смог бы вовремя закончить работу.
In sentences of unreal condition the modal verbsmight and could are often used; they fully retain their modal meaning and therefore they do not form the analytical subjunctive.
Here we have the group 'modal verb + Infinitive' which forms a compound verbal modal predicate, whereas the analytical subjunctive forms a simple predicate.
Icould have done very well if I had been without the Murd- stones. (Dickens)
— Я мог бы очень хорошо учиться, если бы не Мердстоны.
Would, when used in the subordinate clause of a sentence of unreal condition, is also a modal verb forming with the infinitive a compound verbal modal predicate.
If youwould come andsee us..., mother would be as proud of your company as I should be. (Dickens) — Если бы вы пожелали навестить нас..., моя матушка была бы так же польщена этим, как и я.
In conditional sentcnces of real condition naturally the Indicative and not the Subjunctive Mood is used. Such sentences can refer to the present, future or past.
But Ican bear anything gladly if youare happy. (Eliot)
If youmake this disgusting match, youwill neversee Hector
again. (Shaw)
The conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of condition are:if, in case, provided, suppose, unless and some others, if is the most common conjunction used in sentences of real and unreal condition.
In case and provided are chiefly used in sentences of real condition. При условии
In case Idon't find her at home, I'll leave her a note. — В случае, если я не застану ее дома, я оставлю ей записку Ishall go there provided youconsent to accompany me.
— Я пойду туда при условии, что вы согласитесь пойти со мной.
Suppose is more common in sentences of unreal condition. Предположим
Suppose hewrote to you,would youanswer? — Предположим, он написал бы вам, вы бы ответили?
Unless is used in sentences of real and unreal condition.
I'll come in time unless Iam detained at the University.
—Яприду вовремя, если меня не задержат в университете.
Note. Unless has a negative meaning; it corresponds to the Russian если не. There are cases, however, when the Russian если не cannot be rendered in English by unless; only if not is possible.
Осторожно переходите улицу,если не хотите попасть под машину — Cross the street carefullyif youdon't want to be run over.
Adverbial clauses of condition containing the verbs had, were, could and should are often introduced without any conjunction. In thesecaseswe find inversion.
Had the wandererremained awake for another half-hour, a strange sight would have met his eyes. (Conan Doyle)
— Если бы путешественник продолжал бодрствовать еще в течение получаса, его глазам представилось бы странное зрелище.
I should be myselfwere I once again among the heather in those hills. (E. Bronte)
— Я стала бы такой, как прежде, если бы вновь очутилась на этих холмах, поросших вереском.
Mary would indeed have been grateful to Miss Dunstable,couldshehave known all that lady did for her. (Trollope)
— Мэри и в самом деле была бы очень благодарна мисс Данстэбл, если бы она могла знать все, что эта дама для нее сделала.
Should hecome this way, I will speak to him. (Ch. Bronte)
— Если ему случится быть здесь, я поговорю с ним.
The Subjunctive Mood is used in sentences expressing what may be understood as an unreal consequence, the condition of which is not expressed as such. Висловлюючи те, що може бути зрозуміле як наслідок нереального.
I suppose you are a stranger in these parts, or youwould have heard what happened last autumn. (Ch. Bronte)
— Наверно, вы приезжая, иначе вы бы знали о том, что случилось здесь осенью.
There was no piano... because itwould have taken up much room. (Galsworthy)
— Рояля не было..., так как он занял бы много места.
28. The Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences.
Insimple sentences the synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood are more frequent than the analytical forms.
In simple sentences the Subjunctive Mood is used:
(1) to express wish (пожелание):
Successattend you! — Да сопутствует вам успех!
God save the Queen! — Боже, храни королеву!
То express wish the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may is also used.
May success attend you! — Да сопутствует вам успех!
May you live long and die happy! — Желаю вам долго жить и быть счастливым до конца своих дней.
(2)to express an unreal wish:
If only hewere free! (Galsworthy) — Если бы только он был свободен!
(3)in oaths and imprecations (в клятвах і прокльонах):
Mannersbe hanged! — К черту всякие церемонии!
Confound these flies! — Будь они прокляты, эти мухи!
(4)in some expressions:
Suffice it to say that... Be it so! Godforbid!
Farbe it from me...
The Subjunctive Mood in simple sentences is characteristic of literary style, except in oaths and imprecations, which belong to low colloquial style.
29. Agreement of the predicate with the subject.
In the English language the predicate agrees with the subject in person and number.
Agreement implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other.
Узгодження передбачає, що використання однієї форми вимагає використання іншої.
The house was alive with soft, quick steps and running voices. (Mansfield)
This evening there was nobright sunset; west and east wereone cloud… (Ch. Bronte)
But in Modern English there is often a conflict between form and meaning; in these cases the predicate does not agree with the subject.
The Durham family wereat breakfast, father, mother and seven children. (O'Conor)
"Great Expectations" was written by Dickens in 1860.
He further intimated that the United States wasso interested inits own internal affairs that it would not be draw into the question.(Graves)
In Modern English, agreement of the predicate with the subject is restricted to the present tense apart from the verb to be.Узгодження обмежується теперішнім часом незалежно від дієслова бути.
The verb to be is an exception because it agrees with the subject not only in the present but in the past tense as well. Дієслово бути це виняток, тому що це узгоджується з підметом не тільки в сьогоденні, але в минулому часі також.
I am serious myself.. (Lindsay)
We are men and women who respect ourselves and love our families. (Burke)
AndJoseph wasthere with me. (Abrahams)
All the blinds were pulled downat the hall and rectory. (Thackeray)
Rules of agreement
1.The predicate is used in the plural when there are two or more homogeneous subjects connected by the conjunctionand or asyndetically. Присудок використовується у множині, коли є два або більше однорідних підмети, пов'язаних спільно або синтетично.
Her father and mother .. wereobviously haunted and harassed.(Galsworthy)
If two or more homogeneous subjects are expressed by infinitives the predicate is in the singular. Якщо 2 підмети виражені інфінітивом, то присудок викор. у однині.
To labour in peace, and devote her labour and her life to her poor son,was allthe widow sought.
To leave the quiet court, to gain the Strand, to hail a belated hansomwas the work of a moment.
2.When the predicate-verb precedes a number of subjects it is often in the singular, especially if the sentence begins with hereor there. Коли присудку-дієслову передує ряд підметів він викор. в однині.
And here was a man, was experience and culture.(Galsworthy)
If the subjects are of different number the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first. Якщо підмети різного числа, то присудок узгоджується з підметом, що стоїть першим.
There wasmuch trafficat night and many muleson the roads with boxes of ammunition on each of their pack saddles. (Hemingway)
3.When two homogeneous subjects in the singular are connect by the conjunctions not only.. but (also), neither.. nor, either .. or, or, nor,the predicate is usually in the singular.
There was neither heroic swift defeat nor heroic swift victory. (Wells)
Not only the anchor of hope, but the footing of fortitude was goneat least for a moment.
4.When two subjects in the singular are connected by the conjunction as well asthe predicate is in the singular.
Activity as well as cell structure is an essential condition of life.(Young)
If the subjects are of different person or number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first. The Volga as well as it’s affluents is very picturesque.
5.If a subject expressed by a noun is modified by two or more attributes (означення) connected by and, the predicate is in the singular when one person, thing, or idea is meant.
The complete and beautiful quietwas almost the quietfrom beyond the grave.
Here a new social and political consciousnesswas in the making.(Abrahams)
If 2 or more persons, things, or ideas are meant the predicate is in the plural.
The red and the white rose arebothbeautiful.
The red and white roses arebothbeautiful.
6.If the subject is expressed by a defining, indefinite, or negative pronoun (each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, somebody, someone, something, nobody, no one, nothing, neither, etc.), the predicate is in the singular.
Everybody was glad to see Martin back. (London)
There was something in her silence which- disconcerted him. (Galsworthy)
There was nothingto attract attention or excite alarm in this. (Dickens)
7.If the subject is expressed by an interrogative pronoun(who, what)the predicate is usually in the singular.
"Who is to apply to her for permission?" I asked. (Collins)
If the question refers to more than one person the predicate may be used in the plural.
Who were to be the subjects of their piracies was a matter that did not occur to him. (Twain)
8.If the subject is expressed by a relative pronoun(who, which, that) the predicate agrees with its antecedent(попереднім).
Mrs. Gowan, who was engaged in needlework, put her work aside in a covered basket, and rose a little hurriedly. (Dickens)
Near them were the old people who were watching thedancing. (Abrahams)
9.If the subject is expressed by the emphatic it the predicate is in the singular no matterwhat follows. ТОЛЬКО IT IS
Foreigners say that it is only English girls who can thus be trusted to travel alone.
10.If the subject is expressed by a noun in the plural which is the title of a book, or the name of a newspaper or magazine, the predicate is usually in the singular.
"The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club" was written when Dickens was twenty-four years of age.
11.If the subject is expressed by a noun in the plural denoting time, measure, or distance, the predicate isin the singular when the noun represents the amount or mass as a whole.
Threedollars is the sum laid aside for all other purposes and pleasures. (Dreiser)
Twenty-one years is a longish time, lad, but memory is longer and deeper and stronger than time.
12.If the subject is expressed by a collective noun denoting a group or collection of similar individuals taken as a whole(mankind, humanity, etc.) the predicate-verb is in the singular.
He consoled himself with the idea that perhaps humanity was betterthan he thought.
If the subject is expressed by a noun of multitude, i. e. a collective noun denoting the individuals of the group taken separately (people — люди, infantry, cavalry, gentry, clergy, police, cattle, poultry, jury, etc.) the predicate-verb is as a rule in the plural.
The weather was warm, and the people were sittingat their doors. (Dickens)
With collective nouns (family, committee, crew, army, board,chorus, government, party, team, company, band, etc.) as subject the predicate is either in the singular or in the plural; this depends on what is uppermost in the mind, the idea of oneness or plurality.
.. the branch committee was meetingin the room of a textile trade union. (Lindsay)
The company wasthen complete, twenty-one in all. (Galsworthy)
The Board was again full.. (Galsworthy)
The meal over, the party were freeto run and play in the meadows. (Ch. Bronte)
.. the band was beginning to play a selection from the music of Gried. (Hichens)
When we came to the house we found that the bandhad arrived and were standingabout in the hall.
30. Conjunctions and connectives.
A conjunction is a word used to join parts of a sentence (clauses) or words within a part of a sentence, e.g. and, but, because, then. You can use conjunctions to join 2 sentences or 2 parts of a sentence. They help you to show the relationship/connection between the two parts of a sentence.
According to their morphological structureconjunctions are divided into the following groups:
simpleconjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.). прості
derivativeconjunctions (until, unless, etc.). похідні
compoundconjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). складені
compositeconjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.). складні
Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both ... and, either ... or, not only ... but (also), neither ... nor, whether ... or.
If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would have seemed to him bothridiculous andsentimental. (Galsworthy)
As to their functionconjunctions fall under two classes:
· coordinating conjunctions;
· subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).
Ці сполучники поєднують складні частини в складених реченнях (а), або однорідні частини у простому реченні (б), або однорідні підрядні в складному реченні (С), або незалежних реченнях (D).
He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, buthe simply couldn't any more; andcrossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. (Galsworthy)
He opened his eyes andstared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson)
Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).
Приєднують підлеглі або підрядні речення до головного речення (а), або обставини до присудка у простому реченні (б), а іноді вони приєднують однорідні частини (C).
When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)
He shook his head a bit as ifin wonder that he had permitted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)
My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she spoke with extreme, thoughsuppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)
Connecting words
If you want to make connections between words and phrases, you can use other connecting words such as: ALSO EVEN ONLY AS WELL LIKE THAN TOO
| USAGE | CONNECTIVE WORDS |
| addition of ideas | and, also, besides, further, furthermore, too, moreover, in addition, then, of equal importance, equally important, another |
| time | next, afterward, finally, later, last, lastly, at last, now, subsequently, then, when, soon, thereafter, after a short time, the next week (month, day, etc.), a minute later, in the meantime, meanwhile, on the following day, at length, ultimately, presently |
| order or sequence | first, second, (etc.), finally, hence, next, then, from here on, to begin with, last of all, after, before, as soon as, in the end, gradually |
| space and place | above, behind, below, beyond, here, there, to the right (left), nearby, opposite, on the other side, in the background, directly ahead, along the wall, as you turn right, at the top, across the hall, at this point, adjacent to |
| to signal an example | for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be specific, such as, moreover, furthermore, just as important, similarly, in the same way |
| results | as a result, hence, so, accordingly, as a consequence, consequently, thus, since, therefore, for this reason, because of this |
| purpose | to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, for this reason(s) |
| comparison | like, in the same manner (way), as so, similarly |
| contrast connectives | but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, nevertheless, nonetheless, yet, and yet, on the other hand, on the contrary, or, in spite of this, actually, in fact |
| to summarize or report | in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, finally, on the whole, therefore, as I have said, in conclusion, as you can see |
31. Simple sentence. Types of classification. 264
A sentenceis a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought.
Речення є одиницею промови, чия граматична структура відповідає законам мови і яка служить в якості головних засобів передачі думки.
A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker's attitude to it.
Речення є не тільки засобом спілкування про щось реальне, але також засобом показу ставлення мовця до цього.
§ 2. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles:
· according to the purpose of the utterance;
· according to the structure.
• відповідно до мети висловлювання;
• відповідно до структури.