Plural nouns that end in "s" take an apostrophe at the end ( ' ).
For example: The girls' dresses.
· Those nouns that are plural and have not the end of the s, create the possessive case with the help of the end of S, preceded by a an apostrophe: women's beauty secrets.
· When we talk about 2 or more nouns connected with the "and", the end ‘s we put after the last word. We have bought Sue and Tom's car.
· When we talk about 2 nouns connected with the "and", but being not a general determinant, we put ‘safter the specific word: I like Shelly's and Byron's poems.
· The adjective is placed before the noun to which it is belongs: «the beautiful girl's voice» (голос этой прекрасной девушки) or «the girl's beautiful voice» (прекрасный голос этой девушки).
· In Possessive case phrases, represents one meaningful whole, the end ‘s take the last word of the phrase. (My elder brother's son is very ill." - «Сын моего старшего брата очень болен»).
3. Article as a structural part of speech.
The articleis the structural part of speech used with nouns. There are two articles in Modern English: the indefinite article (a, an) and the definite article (the).
The indefinite article has the forms a and an. The form a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound (a book, a pen, a student). The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound (an opera, an apple, an hour).
The definite article has one graphic form the, which is pronounced in two ways: [thi] before a vowel sound and [the] before a consonant sound.
The use of the indefinite article implies that the object is presented as belonging to a class.
The use of the definite article shows that a particular (конкретный) object is meant.
Principal functions of the definite and indefinite articles.
The indefinite article can be used in 4 functions.
The classifying function of the indefinite article is realized in the so-called classifying utterances(классификационных высказываний).
Their invariant sentence pattern is: N + Vbe + N1. Those are:
· structures with the verb "to be", for example: This is a computer.
· exclamatory sentences beginning with "what" or such. E.g. What a long story! He is such a nuisance!
· sentences including an adverbial modifier of manner or comparison. E.g. You look like a rose! She works as a teacher.
The function of indeflniteness (Функция неопределенности) is realized when the referent of the noun is not a real thing, but it exists in the speaker's imagination only (существует только в воображении говорящего).
Those are sentences containing modal verbs or verbs with modal meaning, forms of the Subjunctive Mood, Future Tense forms, negative and interrogative sentences.
E.g. I wish I had a home like you do. Have you ever seen a living tiger?
The introductory function.Before sharing some information about the object, we need to introduce it to the hearer. Fairy tales can be used as ideal illustrations of the use of the indefinite article in its introductory function.
E.g. Once upon a time there lived an old man. He had a wife and a daughter. He lived in a small house.
The quantifying function(Функция количественного).The indefinite article developed from the numeral "one". The meaning of "oneness" is still preserved when the article is used with nouns denoting measure, like "a minute", "a year" or "a pound".
The definite article may be used in the following functions:
The identifying function. Определяющая функция. When we speak, we may want to point out to something that we perceive with our organs of feeling. Когда мы говорим, мы хотим, указать на то, что мы воспринимаем нашими органами чувств.
There are 5 different ways of getting the information about something existing in the objective reality. We can see it {Do you like the picture!), hear it (I believe, the music is too loud), feel it (The pillow is so softl), smell it (What is the name of the perfume?) or taste it (The soup tastes bitter).
The function of definiteness. Функция определенности. The object or thing denoted by the noun is presented as a part of some complex. In modern science the term"frame" is often used. For example, the frame "classroom" includes a window, a blackboard and a door. So if both the speaker and the hearer know what classroom they are speaking of, the constituents of the classroom don't need any special concretization, and the definite article will be used. E.g. I want to talk to the rector (even if you have never met the man).
The individualizing function. The object in question may be presented as a unique thing with the hearer's attention focused on its features, which are represented with the help of a limiting attribute which can be expressed by:
· adjectives in the superlative degree; E.g. This is the easiest way out.
· ordinal numerals; E.g. I have forgotten the first word.
· attributive relative restrictive clauses; E.g. I need the book I bought yesterday.
Use of articles with proper nouns.
· Names of people used without articles.
· Names denoting the whole family are used with the definite article.
· When names of people are used to denote a representative of a family(для обозначения представителя семьи), the indefinite article is used.
· Names of people modified by a particularizing attribute are used with the definite article. You're not the Andrew Manson I married. (Cronin)
· Names of people used as common nouns take the article according to the general rule on the use of articles. Mozart has been called the Raphael of music.
· Nouns denoting military ranks and titles such as academician, professor; doctor (both a profession and a title), count, lord, etc. followed by names of people do not take the article. In such cases only the proper noun is stressed: Colonel Brown, Doctor Strong.
· Nouns expressing relationship followed by names of people do not take the article: Aunt Polly, Uncle James.
· Nouns expressing relationship not followed by a proper noun and the nouns nurse, cook, baby do not take the article when used by members of the family. "I'd like to see Mother," said Emily. (Galsworthy)
· If other people's relations are meant, the article is used. The son is as clever as the father.
· In most cases no article is used with names of people modified by the adjectives old, young, poor, dear, little, honest, lazy.
· When modified by other adjectives and participles names of people take the definite article. “He thought Amelia worthy even of the brilliant George Osborne”.
· Names of people modified by the adjective certain are used with the indefinite article. “I heard it from a certain Mr. Brown
1. Geographical names like all the other proper nouns are used without articles: England, France, Moscow, London.
2.Geographical names modified by a particularizing attribute are used with the definite article.
The Philadelphia into which Frank Algernon Cowperwood was born was a city of two hundred and fifty thousand and more. (Dreiser)
3.With names of oceans, seas, rivers the definite article is used: the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific), the Black Sea, the Thames, the Ohio River.
4.Names of lakes do not take the article if the word lake is used, which is nearly always the case; if it is not mentioned we find the definite article: Lake Windermere, Lake Ontario, the Ontario.
5.With names of mountain chains the definite article is used: the Urals, the Alps.
With names of mountain peaks no article is used:Elbrus, Everest.
6.With names of groups of islands the definite article is used: the Hebrides, the Bermudas.
With names of single islands there is no article:Madagascar.
7.The names of the following towns, countries and provinces are used with the definite article: the Netherlands, the West Indies, the Crimea, the Ukraine, the Caucasus.
8.Names ofstreets and squaresare usedwithout articles: Oxford Street, Wall Street, Trafalgar Square, Russell Square.
There are a few exceptions: the High Street, the Strand, the Mall
Names of hotels, ships, newspapers and magazines.
Names of hotels, restaurants, pubs, theatres, cinemas, museums/ galleries, ships, newspapers and magazines are used with the definite article.
Some shops, restaurants, hotels, banks, etc. are named after the people who started them. These names end in -s or - 's. The definite article is not used with such names.
Shops:Selfridges, Harrods
Hotels:Claridge's
Restaurants:Maxim's, Macdonalds
Use of articles with nouns modified by certain adjectives, pronouns and numerals.
Most.
(a) Most + adjective. (прикметник)
The definite article is used when most serves to form the superlative degree of an adjective.
This is the most interesting chapter in the book.
The use of the indefinite article shows that a high degree of a quality is meant.
Caroline found that the old maid had been a most devoted daughter and sister. (Ch. Bronte)
(в) Most + of + noun.
Whenmost is followedby the preposition of.
Most of the flowers in the garden were planted by the schoolchildren.
We saymost, not most of the, when we do not mean definite people or things.
Most flowers smell sweet.
Few
Few means 'мало'.
A few means 'несколько'. He left after a few moments. (Dreiser)
The few means 'те немногие (которые)'.
Little
Little means 'мало'.
A little means 'некоторое количество'.
The little means 'то небольшое количество (которое)'.
Two, the two; three, the three, etc.
Two means 'два'.
The two means 'оба, те два'.
The second, a second.
The second is an ordinal numeral meaning 'второй'.
A second means 'another, one more'.
A second time means 'once more'.
Another, the other
The pronoun another has two meanings:
a)"какой-либо другой"