There are two books here, take one and I'll take the other.
4. Adjective as a notional part of speech.
The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance.
In English Adjectives are divided into qualitative (denote the quality, i.e.size, shape, colour, state of the thing) and relative (denote the material, place, etc.).
Word order of adjectives.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives.
Three degrees of comparison:
1. positive (expresses a quality without comparison)
2. comparative (denotes a higher degree of quality)
3. superlative (denotes the highest degree)
a tall girl - a taller girl - the tallest girl
an interesting book - a more interesting book - the most interesting book
5. Pronoun as a notional part of speech.
The pronoun is a part of speech which points out objects and their qualities without naming them. Займенник є частиною мови, яка вказує об'єкти та їх властивості, не називаючи їх.
Classification of the pronouns.
6. Adverb as a notional part of speech.
The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
Прислівник — це незмінна самостійна частина мови, що виражає ознаку дії, стан предмета або ознаку якості і відповідає на питанняяк? де? звідки? наскільки? якою мірою?
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
Classification and degrees of comparison of adverbs.
As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative (похідні) adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.);
(The most productive adverb-forming suffix is ‑ly.
There are also some other suffixes: ‑wards, ‑ward; ‑long, ‑wise.)
(3) compound (складний) adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite (складений) adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding ‑erand the superlative by adding -est.
fast — faster — fastest
hard — harder — hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in ‑lyform the comparative by means of moreand the superlative by means of most.
wisely — more wisely — most wisely
beautifully — more beautifully — most beautifully
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well — better — best
badly — worse — worst
much — more — most
little — less — least
According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);
(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency (частота) (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);
(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.);
(4) adverbs of cause and consequence (наслідок) (therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.);
(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);
(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (Ступінь, міра і кількість ) (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.
Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions2 and words of the category of state.
7. Numerals as a notional part of speech.
The numeral is a part of speech that indicates the number of or the order of persons and things in a series.
Accordingly, numerals are divided into cardinals (порядкові) (cardinal numerals) and ordinals (ordinal numbers).
Grammatical characteristics of numerals.
Cardinal numerals indicate exact number, they are used in counting.
As to their structure, the cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100, 1000, 1,000,000 are simple words (one, two, three, etc., hundred, thousand, million); those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with the suffix‑teen (thirteen, fourteen, etc.); the cardinal numerals indicating tens are formed by means of the suffix ‑ty (twenty, thirty, etc.).
The numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, etc. are composite: twenty-two, thirty-five, etc.
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things. Порядкові числівники показують порядок людей і речей.
With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix ‑th.
In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third. Ordinal numerals are generally used with the definite article (the first, the fifth, the tenth, etc.).
8. Verb as a notional part of speech. Grammatical characteristics of verb..
The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. It has the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense,aspect, voice and mood.
These categories can be expressed by means of affixes, inner flexion (change of the root vowel) and by form words.
Verbs may be transitive and intransitive. Дієслова можуть бути перехідні і неперехідні.
Verbs have finite forms which can be used as the predicate of sentence and non-finite forms which cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence.
According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
1. simple (read, live, hide, speak),
2. derived, i. e. having affixes (magnify, inherit, originate, undo);
3. compound, i. e. consisting of two stems (daydream, brow-beat);
4. composite, consisting of a verb and a postposition of adverbial origin (sit down, look after, give up)
Verbs have their own stem-building elements:
postfixes: -fy (simplify, magnify, identify…)
-ize (realize, fertilize, standardize…)
-ate (activate, captivate…)
prefixes: re- (rewrite, restart, replant…)
mis- (misuse, misunderstand, misstate…)
un- (uncover, uncouple, uncrown…)
de- (depose, depress, derange…) and so on.
Verbal categories
As has already been mentioned, the verb has the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice,andmood.
The category of tense is very clearly expressed in the forms of the English verb. This category denotes the relation of the action either to the moment of speaking or to some definite moment in the past or future. The category of tense and the category of aspect are intermingled.
The category of aspect shows the way in which the action develops.
There are 4 groups of tenses: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous.
The Indefinite form has no aspect characteristics whatever, the Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous forms denote both time and aspect relations.
Each of these forms includes four tenses: Present, Past, Future and Future in the Past, i.e. future from the point of view of the past. Thus there are 16 tenses in English.
Voice is the category of the verb which indicates relation of the predicate to the subject and the object. Voice категорія дієслова, вказує ставлення предиката до суб'єкту і об'єкту.
There are three voices in English: the active voice, the passive voice, and the neuter-reflexive voice.
The active voice shows that the person or thing denoted by subject is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate.
The passive voice shows that the person or thing denoted the subject is acted upon.
The neuter-reflexive voice shows that the action expressed by the predicate passes on to the subject. This voice is formed by means of a reflexive pronoun.
Mood is a grammatical category which indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the verb from the point of view of its reality. Настрій це граматична категорія, яка вказує на ставлення мовця до дії, вираженої дієсловом з погляду його реальності.
We distinguish the indicative mood, the imperative mood, and the subjunctive mood.
Ми розрізняємо орієнтовний настрій, наказовий спосіб, і умовний спосіб.
9. The formation and use of the Present Simple in the Active Voice.
1. The Present Indefinite is formed from the infinitive without the particle to.
In the 3rd person singular the ending ‑sis added.
After a sibilant represented in spelling by s, ss, ch, sh, tch, x, z and after the vowel o, ‑es is added: he writes, he reads, he speaks; he passes, he pushes, he watches, he teaches; he goes, he does. После шипячих и после гласной О окончание –es.
2. The pronunciation of the ending-s (-es) depends on the sound preceding it.
· [iz] after the sibilants [s], [z], [th], [dz], [sh]: passes ["pesiz], pushes ["pushiz], teaches ["tichiz];
· [z] after voiced non-sibilants and vowels: reads [ridz], lives [lIvz], sees [siz];
· [s] after voiceless non-sibilants: works [works], wants [wonts].
3. In the third person singular we find the following orthographical change:
A final у is changed into i if it is preceded by a consonant and then ‑es is added: to study — he studies; to try — he tries.
After a vowel у is kept unchanged: to play — he plays; to stay — he stays.
4. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the verb to do and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.
| Affirmative (утвердительный) | Interrogative (вопросительный) | Negative (отрицательный) |
| I work He works She works We work You work They work | Do I work? Does he work? Does she work? Do we work? Do you work? Do they work? | I do not work He does not work She does not work We do not work You do not work They do not work |
The Present Indefinite is used to denote:
1. Customary, repeated actions. This is its most characteristic use. Обычные, повторяющиеся действия.
The Browns go to the seaside every summer.
The repeated character of the action is often shown by adverbials such as every day, often, usually, etc.
2. Actions and states characterizing a given person. Действия и состояния, характеризующие данное лицо.
She has many accomplishments: shesings and plays the piano beautifully.
3. Universal truths, something which is eternally true. Очевидные вещи, всем известные.
Magnet attracts iron. The earthrotates round its axis.
4. Actions going on at the present moment (with verbs not used in the Continuous form).
I see George in the street. Tell him to come in.
I hear somebody knock. Go and open the door.
5. A future action:
(a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as, as long as, if, unless, on condition that, provided.
ПРИСЛІВНИКОВІ ЗВОРОТИ ЧАСУ
...Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before yougo?
I promise not to try to see Robert again till heasks for me.
(b) with verbs of motion, such as to go, to come, to leave etc. The future action is regarded as something fixed.
З дієсловами руху. Майбутнє дія розглядається як щось застигле.
The train leave sat 10 tomorrow. Поїзд відходить в 10 завтра.